Maternal Effects: The influences of maternal environment, phenotype, and/or
genotype on offspring phenotypes, independently of offspring genotype.
Maternal Inheritance: When the inherited traits of the offspring are passed down
through extranuclear (i.e., mitochondrial) DNA in the egg.
Metabolic Resistance: Insecticide resistance conferred through modifications of the
systems responsible for xenobiotic metabolism.
Convergent Evolution: The independent evolution of the same features in different
groups.
Physiological Acclimation: Any coping mechanism that is governed by physiological processes that are nonheritable. Acclimation occurs at the level of the organism.
Polygenic: Characterized by influence from multiple genes, particularly in the
context of a phenotype.
Resistance: A decrease in chemical sensitivity caused by an adaptive, genetic
change.
Selective Force: Anything that favors certain genotypes or phenotypes over others.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP): A change to the DNA sequence caused
by a single base pair substitution.
Target Site Insensitivity: Insecticide resistance conferred through a modification of
the target site, leaving the insecticide unable to bind and elicit primary toxic action.
Tolerance: A decrease in chemical sensitivity from acclimatory mechanisms;
reversible, nonheritable.
Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: Refers to the transmission of specific
epigenetic marks/processes across generations, via the germline.
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel: The primary target site for pyrethroids, vgsc is
the abbreviation for the gene that codes for the channel; Vgsc is the abbreviation for
the protein channel.
1 Background
Pyrethroid pesticides, which are chemically enhanced derivatives of the natural
pyrethrin compounds produced by common flowers (Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium), are the fourth most prevalent insecticide class in use globally
[1, 2]. The first synthetic pyrethroid pesticides were developed in the late 1940s [3]
but were not stable or persistent enough for widespread agricultural use until the
1970s [4]. With modifications to increase their potency and persistence [5], the use
of pyrethroid pesticides has increased by an order of magnitude over the past
20 years, as organophosphate pesticides that are acutely neurotoxic to mammals
have been phased out [6]. Pyrethroids have several advantages over other classes of
pesticides including the organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates
because of their greater field stability, rapid metabolism and elimination in mammals, and high insecticidal potency requiring lower inputs [7]. At present, pyrethroids are important globally for food security and disease vector control [8].
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genotype on offspring phenotypes, independently of offspring genotype.
Maternal Inheritance: When the inherited traits of the offspring are passed down
through extranuclear (i.e., mitochondrial) DNA in the egg.
Metabolic Resistance: Insecticide resistance conferred through modifications of the
systems responsible for xenobiotic metabolism.
Convergent Evolution: The independent evolution of the same features in different
groups.
Physiological Acclimation: Any coping mechanism that is governed by physiological processes that are nonheritable. Acclimation occurs at the level of the organism.
Polygenic: Characterized by influence from multiple genes, particularly in the
context of a phenotype.
Resistance: A decrease in chemical sensitivity caused by an adaptive, genetic
change.
Selective Force: Anything that favors certain genotypes or phenotypes over others.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP): A change to the DNA sequence caused
by a single base pair substitution.
Target Site Insensitivity: Insecticide resistance conferred through a modification of
the target site, leaving the insecticide unable to bind and elicit primary toxic action.
Tolerance: A decrease in chemical sensitivity from acclimatory mechanisms;
reversible, nonheritable.
Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance: Refers to the transmission of specific
epigenetic marks/processes across generations, via the germline.
Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel: The primary target site for pyrethroids, vgsc is
the abbreviation for the gene that codes for the channel; Vgsc is the abbreviation for
the protein channel.
1 Background
Pyrethroid pesticides, which are chemically enhanced derivatives of the natural
pyrethrin compounds produced by common flowers (Chrysanthemum
cinerariaefolium), are the fourth most prevalent insecticide class in use globally
[1, 2]. The first synthetic pyrethroid pesticides were developed in the late 1940s [3]
but were not stable or persistent enough for widespread agricultural use until the
1970s [4]. With modifications to increase their potency and persistence [5], the use
of pyrethroid pesticides has increased by an order of magnitude over the past
20 years, as organophosphate pesticides that are acutely neurotoxic to mammals
have been phased out [6]. Pyrethroids have several advantages over other classes of
pesticides including the organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates
because of their greater field stability, rapid metabolism and elimination in mammals, and high insecticidal potency requiring lower inputs [7]. At present, pyrethroids are important globally for food security and disease vector control [8].
The Ecological and Evolutionary Implications of Pyrethroid Exposure: A New. . .
111