250
E.-S. E. Omran
1 Introduction
Climate change has now become a reality, and this is not possible to overestimate
its negative effect on agricultural production as well as other social and economic
endeavors, which cannot be under estimated. Warming triggered by emissions can
affect climate variability, and climate change would be among the most complicated
issues for future development, particularly in Africa [1]. Agriculture in Africa will
be negatively affected by climate change [2]. Climate variability has attracted great
attention, not only because of the unparalleled persistence of abnormally low precipitation but also because of the low power of social and economic systems to deal
with the hazards related to climate change [3]. Due to this low capacity, extreme climate variability, like those of drought, is sometimes followed by an environmental
decline the decimation of livestock herds, widespread food scarcity, mass migration
and huge losses of human life [4].
On the one hand, agriculture is the cornerstone on which the ancient Egyptian
civilization was established thousands of years ago and represents a significant historical value, which is part of today’s Egyptian culture. There is also a significant
economic value for agriculture as its added value is 14.5% of total Egyptian GDP
in 2013 with 29% of the labor working in the sector in 2011 [5]. El-Nahrawy [6]
reported that agriculture offers a livelihood for around 55% of Egyptians and contributes to about 20% of all foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture has the highest
share of water use among all sectors with 81.1% of the total water use [6]. On the
other hand, agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to climate change, which affects
the two most essential direct agricultural production input; precipitation and temperature [7]. It is predicted that long-term changes in rainfall patterns and temperature
shifts would have harmful effects on agriculture [8].
Climate change often impacts agricultural production indirectly by affecting the
development and distribution of crop pests and animal diseases, increasing the rate
and dissemination of harmful diseases, weather conditions, reducing water supplies
and irrigation; and enhancing the severity of soil erosion [9, 10]. Such climatic
hazards became the driving forces, which challenge many farmers’ livelihoods. The
rural population, whose primary source of food, direct and/or indirect employment
and income is agriculture, will be most influenced because of the susceptibility of
agriculture to climate change.
Adaptation to climate change refers to modification in natural or human systems
in response to actual or predictable climatic stimuli [9, 11]. It enables farmers to
produce their food, income, and livelihood protection goals in light of climate and
socio-economic change [12]. Common methods of adaptation in agriculture involve
new crop varieties and animal species that are suitable to drier situations, irrigation,
divarication of crops, implementation of mixed crop and livestock farming systems,
and changes in the dates of agricultural activity [13, 14]. Some of these methods (e.g.,
changes in agricultural activity dates) undertaken in response to short-term climate
variability are classified as coping responses. Several factors and critical information
are considered amongst them crop calendars [15]. The chronological sequence of
E.-S. E. Omran
1 Introduction
Climate change has now become a reality, and this is not possible to overestimate
its negative effect on agricultural production as well as other social and economic
endeavors, which cannot be under estimated. Warming triggered by emissions can
affect climate variability, and climate change would be among the most complicated
issues for future development, particularly in Africa [1]. Agriculture in Africa will
be negatively affected by climate change [2]. Climate variability has attracted great
attention, not only because of the unparalleled persistence of abnormally low precipitation but also because of the low power of social and economic systems to deal
with the hazards related to climate change [3]. Due to this low capacity, extreme climate variability, like those of drought, is sometimes followed by an environmental
decline the decimation of livestock herds, widespread food scarcity, mass migration
and huge losses of human life [4].
On the one hand, agriculture is the cornerstone on which the ancient Egyptian
civilization was established thousands of years ago and represents a significant historical value, which is part of today’s Egyptian culture. There is also a significant
economic value for agriculture as its added value is 14.5% of total Egyptian GDP
in 2013 with 29% of the labor working in the sector in 2011 [5]. El-Nahrawy [6]
reported that agriculture offers a livelihood for around 55% of Egyptians and contributes to about 20% of all foreign exchange earnings. Agriculture has the highest
share of water use among all sectors with 81.1% of the total water use [6]. On the
other hand, agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to climate change, which affects
the two most essential direct agricultural production input; precipitation and temperature [7]. It is predicted that long-term changes in rainfall patterns and temperature
shifts would have harmful effects on agriculture [8].
Climate change often impacts agricultural production indirectly by affecting the
development and distribution of crop pests and animal diseases, increasing the rate
and dissemination of harmful diseases, weather conditions, reducing water supplies
and irrigation; and enhancing the severity of soil erosion [9, 10]. Such climatic
hazards became the driving forces, which challenge many farmers’ livelihoods. The
rural population, whose primary source of food, direct and/or indirect employment
and income is agriculture, will be most influenced because of the susceptibility of
agriculture to climate change.
Adaptation to climate change refers to modification in natural or human systems
in response to actual or predictable climatic stimuli [9, 11]. It enables farmers to
produce their food, income, and livelihood protection goals in light of climate and
socio-economic change [12]. Common methods of adaptation in agriculture involve
new crop varieties and animal species that are suitable to drier situations, irrigation,
divarication of crops, implementation of mixed crop and livestock farming systems,
and changes in the dates of agricultural activity [13, 14]. Some of these methods (e.g.,
changes in agricultural activity dates) undertaken in response to short-term climate
variability are classified as coping responses. Several factors and critical information
are considered amongst them crop calendars [15]. The chronological sequence of