Vulnerability of Crop Pollination Ecosystem Services to Climate …
235
Egyptian beekeepers have reported some symptoms of CCD [108] so it is a great
challenge for bee scientists for figuring out some solutions for protecting honeybees
and solitary bees. By this, we will assure better pollination services and more plant
and crop production.
5.5 Honeybee and Pesticides
Several studies have highlighted the great impact of the application of chemical
pesticides on honey bees and other pollinators. Pesticides are a key factor behind
colony collapse disorder (CCD), directly and in tandem with two leading co-factors,
pathogens and shortage of natural resources. Most pesticides are intended to serve
as plant protection products (also known as crop protection products), which in
general, protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. Prominent insecticide families
include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Potential exposure of
bees to pesticides can vary greatly depending on the type of pesticide, formulation,
application method, label restrictions, and other factors. Also, the exposure to the
pesticides might have a sublethal effect on honeybees and solitary bees as well, and
with long-term of exposure. This leads to the decline of bees and less pollination
services [109–119].
The intensive use of different pesticides and, in particular, a new class of neuroactive insecticides, called neonicotinoid insecticides (NIs) play a significant role in
honey bee colony losses [120]. Neuro-active insecticides are extremely dangerous to
honeybees because they disturb the organism’s neurobehavioral and immune system
[121]. The mode of action of these compounds is to bind to the nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), acting agonistically, causing paralysis and death. NIs
bind more strongly to nAChRs of invertebrates, making them more toxic at lower
doses than other compounds. The sub-lethal toxicity of NIs is of particular concern
because the most common field exposure scenarios are likely at the sublethal rather
than acute level. It includes behavioral disruptions such as disorientation, reduced
foraging, impaired memory and learning, and shifts in communication behaviors.
Other important sub-lethal effects might include compromised immunity, delayed
development and a host of indirect, potentially cascading effects that impact the
hive’s ability to sustain itself, leading to large-scale population extinctions in bee
populations.
Egypt, particularly the Nile Delta, is the most important honey and honeyproducing region in the Middle East and North Africa region with an estimated
1.3 million hives [122]. There have been reports in recent decades of great losses in
honey bee colonies for unspecified reasons [114]. However, there is increasing evidence that the intensive use of pesticides, especially NIs is one of the most important
factors that have led to such recent losses. According to the statistics of the Agricultural Pesticides Committee, Egypt consumed about 10,600 metric ton of pesticides
(active ingredient) during 2016 which represent 0.2% of the global consumption (5
million metric tons of a value of 52 billion dollars). A number of registered pesticides
235
Egyptian beekeepers have reported some symptoms of CCD [108] so it is a great
challenge for bee scientists for figuring out some solutions for protecting honeybees
and solitary bees. By this, we will assure better pollination services and more plant
and crop production.
5.5 Honeybee and Pesticides
Several studies have highlighted the great impact of the application of chemical
pesticides on honey bees and other pollinators. Pesticides are a key factor behind
colony collapse disorder (CCD), directly and in tandem with two leading co-factors,
pathogens and shortage of natural resources. Most pesticides are intended to serve
as plant protection products (also known as crop protection products), which in
general, protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. Prominent insecticide families
include organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. Potential exposure of
bees to pesticides can vary greatly depending on the type of pesticide, formulation,
application method, label restrictions, and other factors. Also, the exposure to the
pesticides might have a sublethal effect on honeybees and solitary bees as well, and
with long-term of exposure. This leads to the decline of bees and less pollination
services [109–119].
The intensive use of different pesticides and, in particular, a new class of neuroactive insecticides, called neonicotinoid insecticides (NIs) play a significant role in
honey bee colony losses [120]. Neuro-active insecticides are extremely dangerous to
honeybees because they disturb the organism’s neurobehavioral and immune system
[121]. The mode of action of these compounds is to bind to the nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), acting agonistically, causing paralysis and death. NIs
bind more strongly to nAChRs of invertebrates, making them more toxic at lower
doses than other compounds. The sub-lethal toxicity of NIs is of particular concern
because the most common field exposure scenarios are likely at the sublethal rather
than acute level. It includes behavioral disruptions such as disorientation, reduced
foraging, impaired memory and learning, and shifts in communication behaviors.
Other important sub-lethal effects might include compromised immunity, delayed
development and a host of indirect, potentially cascading effects that impact the
hive’s ability to sustain itself, leading to large-scale population extinctions in bee
populations.
Egypt, particularly the Nile Delta, is the most important honey and honeyproducing region in the Middle East and North Africa region with an estimated
1.3 million hives [122]. There have been reports in recent decades of great losses in
honey bee colonies for unspecified reasons [114]. However, there is increasing evidence that the intensive use of pesticides, especially NIs is one of the most important
factors that have led to such recent losses. According to the statistics of the Agricultural Pesticides Committee, Egypt consumed about 10,600 metric ton of pesticides
(active ingredient) during 2016 which represent 0.2% of the global consumption (5
million metric tons of a value of 52 billion dollars). A number of registered pesticides