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M. A. M. Osman and M. A. Shebl
pollinators. The bees (called Apiformes) can be distinguished from the wasps by
the presence of erect, plumose hairs on their faces [2]. Bees and their life-sustaining
relationships with flowering plants occupy keystone in both natural and agricultural
ecosystems [3–5]. Given their ecological services, native bee faunas are an important natural resource that can complement honey bees and other managed pollinators
in their ecosystem services [6, 7]. Most bees are dependent on products produced
by angiosperm-flowers which include pollen, nectar and oils, which used for their
progeny. The co-evolution of bees and flowers has resulted in special morphological
adaptations for both insects and plants, and the needs of some plants for pollination
by bees are absolute [8]. Bees comprise over 20,000 species worldwide, and most
of them are critical to ecosystem health through their pollination activities, except
for cuckoo bees. Native bees can enhance the services provided by managed honey
bees via behavior interactions [9]. Thus the complementary foraging activities of
honey bees plus wild bees can result in enhancing pollination [10]. The decline of
some species is well documented globally due to several reasons such as climate
change, lack of natural foraging resources, epidemic of some pests and diseases
and elimination of nesting habitats; these declines have been reported worldwide
[11–14].
2 Pollination as an Essential Ecosystem Service
Ecosystem services are the set of processes through which the natural ecosystems
contribute to human well-being [15]. These include provisioning services such
as food and water; regulating services for instance regulation of climate, floods,
drought, land degradation, pests, diseases and pollination; supporting services such
as soil formation, photosynthesis and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as
recreational, spiritual enrichment and other non-material benefits [5, 16].
The natural pollination of crops is one of the most recognized ecosystem services.
It is a pivotal function in all terrestrial ecosystems, supporting ecological stability
and food security worldwide. Pollination service, supplying production inputs to
agriculture from wild biodiversity, provides one of the strongest cases for valuing and
managing natural habitats and resources for the services they provide to livelihoods.
Pollination is defined as a process by which plants sexually reproduce. The process
is defined as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
the same or another flower of the same plant species. So, pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination. This process is one of the oldest
complicated basic biology processes of the evolution history of at least 100 million
years [17]. Pollination service is one of the key ecosystem services associated with
agro-ecosystems, as one-third of crop species worldwide require insect pollinators
[18, 19, 20, 13, 21, 22, 23].
Pollination in flowering plants provided by animals is considered as a regulating
as well as a supporting ecosystem service. As a regulating service, pollination is
essential for the reproduction of pollinator-dependent plants that supply humans
M. A. M. Osman and M. A. Shebl
pollinators. The bees (called Apiformes) can be distinguished from the wasps by
the presence of erect, plumose hairs on their faces [2]. Bees and their life-sustaining
relationships with flowering plants occupy keystone in both natural and agricultural
ecosystems [3–5]. Given their ecological services, native bee faunas are an important natural resource that can complement honey bees and other managed pollinators
in their ecosystem services [6, 7]. Most bees are dependent on products produced
by angiosperm-flowers which include pollen, nectar and oils, which used for their
progeny. The co-evolution of bees and flowers has resulted in special morphological
adaptations for both insects and plants, and the needs of some plants for pollination
by bees are absolute [8]. Bees comprise over 20,000 species worldwide, and most
of them are critical to ecosystem health through their pollination activities, except
for cuckoo bees. Native bees can enhance the services provided by managed honey
bees via behavior interactions [9]. Thus the complementary foraging activities of
honey bees plus wild bees can result in enhancing pollination [10]. The decline of
some species is well documented globally due to several reasons such as climate
change, lack of natural foraging resources, epidemic of some pests and diseases
and elimination of nesting habitats; these declines have been reported worldwide
[11–14].
2 Pollination as an Essential Ecosystem Service
Ecosystem services are the set of processes through which the natural ecosystems
contribute to human well-being [15]. These include provisioning services such
as food and water; regulating services for instance regulation of climate, floods,
drought, land degradation, pests, diseases and pollination; supporting services such
as soil formation, photosynthesis and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as
recreational, spiritual enrichment and other non-material benefits [5, 16].
The natural pollination of crops is one of the most recognized ecosystem services.
It is a pivotal function in all terrestrial ecosystems, supporting ecological stability
and food security worldwide. Pollination service, supplying production inputs to
agriculture from wild biodiversity, provides one of the strongest cases for valuing and
managing natural habitats and resources for the services they provide to livelihoods.
Pollination is defined as a process by which plants sexually reproduce. The process
is defined as the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of
the same or another flower of the same plant species. So, pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination. This process is one of the oldest
complicated basic biology processes of the evolution history of at least 100 million
years [17]. Pollination service is one of the key ecosystem services associated with
agro-ecosystems, as one-third of crop species worldwide require insect pollinators
[18, 19, 20, 13, 21, 22, 23].
Pollination in flowering plants provided by animals is considered as a regulating
as well as a supporting ecosystem service. As a regulating service, pollination is
essential for the reproduction of pollinator-dependent plants that supply humans