[5, 6, 12–14, 16], the pharmaceutical industry [12, 16–18], hospitals [7, 12–14, 19],
veterinary waste [3, 12–14], and water treatment plants are the main contributors of
these products to the water cycle and the soil [4, 6, 13, 18, 19].
Detectable NSAIDs levels in surface water sources [3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21],
underground water sources [9, 11, 12, 18, 20, 21], drinking water [3, 5, 9, 12, 18],
and treatment plant effluents [5, 9, 12, 18, 21] range from ngL
À1 to μgL
À1 [3–5, 9,
14, 19, 21]. Although such concentrations are not harmful to health, these products
accumulate in aquatic bodies [4, 6, 21] or are retained in the soil and sediments for
long periods of time and finally produce changes that could affect the ecosystem and
humans through the food chain [9, 14, 21]. The consequences of their presence in the
environment are not yet completely understood [5] although it is known that at the
usual doses, they can cause unwanted effects. For example, the decline in the
population of vultures in Pakistan and India is attributed to diclofenac that was
used in normal veterinary doses [22, 23].
2.1 NSAIDs Access Routes to the Environment
The physicochemical properties of NSAIDs, their metabolites, and degradation
products determine their access routes to the environment [5, 6, 9, 11, 14,
18]. When conjugated to polar molecules, they can enter into dosmestic wastewater
through the urine and feces of humans and animals, and from there, they travel to
treatment plants and water sources [3, 5, 6, 9, 11–14, 21]. Improper disposal of
unused or expired drugs, waste from the pharmaceutical industry, and filtering from
cemeteries to groundwater of products administered in the final phase of life have
also been considered access routes [5, 21], as well as sewers and septic tanks with
leaks [11, 18]. In some cities such as Taiwan, hospitals discharge directly into rivers
[24] with a consequent increase in pharmaceutical products, including NSAIDs, in
the environment.
The characteristics of rural soils also influence the entry of NSAIDs into the
environment. The application of human and animal waste to farmland, veterinary
products that are administered to livestock and poultry, and sludge from sewage
plants that are used as fertilizers pass to groundwater by filtration and leaching
[11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 25–27]. This process is coupled with the climatic factor,
which also contributes to the entry of these products into bodies of water from the
soil [18, 26–28]. Several studies have shown that the content of contaminants in
bodies of water varies significantly at different times of the year [26–28].
Technological methods for the treatment of household waste are other essential
factors in introducing NSAIDs into the environment. Treatment plants are considered to be primarily responsible for the introduction of NSAIDs to surface and
groundwater [3, 5, 24, 26, 29]. Some authors point out that only 40–65% of them
are eliminated from treatment plants [30], while others reported percentages of
30–99% [6]. Such proportions vary from one plant to another depending on the
technology used and the characteristics of each product [6, 21, 26, 31]. NSAIDs have
Quantification of Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug in Water
85
veterinary waste [3, 12–14], and water treatment plants are the main contributors of
these products to the water cycle and the soil [4, 6, 13, 18, 19].
Detectable NSAIDs levels in surface water sources [3, 5, 9, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21],
underground water sources [9, 11, 12, 18, 20, 21], drinking water [3, 5, 9, 12, 18],
and treatment plant effluents [5, 9, 12, 18, 21] range from ngL
À1 to μgL
À1 [3–5, 9,
14, 19, 21]. Although such concentrations are not harmful to health, these products
accumulate in aquatic bodies [4, 6, 21] or are retained in the soil and sediments for
long periods of time and finally produce changes that could affect the ecosystem and
humans through the food chain [9, 14, 21]. The consequences of their presence in the
environment are not yet completely understood [5] although it is known that at the
usual doses, they can cause unwanted effects. For example, the decline in the
population of vultures in Pakistan and India is attributed to diclofenac that was
used in normal veterinary doses [22, 23].
2.1 NSAIDs Access Routes to the Environment
The physicochemical properties of NSAIDs, their metabolites, and degradation
products determine their access routes to the environment [5, 6, 9, 11, 14,
18]. When conjugated to polar molecules, they can enter into dosmestic wastewater
through the urine and feces of humans and animals, and from there, they travel to
treatment plants and water sources [3, 5, 6, 9, 11–14, 21]. Improper disposal of
unused or expired drugs, waste from the pharmaceutical industry, and filtering from
cemeteries to groundwater of products administered in the final phase of life have
also been considered access routes [5, 21], as well as sewers and septic tanks with
leaks [11, 18]. In some cities such as Taiwan, hospitals discharge directly into rivers
[24] with a consequent increase in pharmaceutical products, including NSAIDs, in
the environment.
The characteristics of rural soils also influence the entry of NSAIDs into the
environment. The application of human and animal waste to farmland, veterinary
products that are administered to livestock and poultry, and sludge from sewage
plants that are used as fertilizers pass to groundwater by filtration and leaching
[11, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 25–27]. This process is coupled with the climatic factor,
which also contributes to the entry of these products into bodies of water from the
soil [18, 26–28]. Several studies have shown that the content of contaminants in
bodies of water varies significantly at different times of the year [26–28].
Technological methods for the treatment of household waste are other essential
factors in introducing NSAIDs into the environment. Treatment plants are considered to be primarily responsible for the introduction of NSAIDs to surface and
groundwater [3, 5, 24, 26, 29]. Some authors point out that only 40–65% of them
are eliminated from treatment plants [30], while others reported percentages of
30–99% [6]. Such proportions vary from one plant to another depending on the
technology used and the characteristics of each product [6, 21, 26, 31]. NSAIDs have
Quantification of Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug in Water
85