was performed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry both in liquid and
solid phase. Their results show that ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and diclofenac
had maximum concentrations of 31, 57, 99, and 144, respectively, in solid phase (μg/
kg) and 165, 166, 192, and 243 μg/L in liquid phase. As is evident, the highest
concentrations of NSAIDs were found in the aqueous samples.
In four different points of the Aisonas River in northern Greece, water samples
were taken to determine the presence of ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and
diclofenac by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The Aisonas
River receives treated municipal wastewater. NSAIDs were detected mainly in the
part of the river that receives water from the wastewater treatment plant. The highest
average concentration detected was for diclofenac with 432 ng/L [32].
Ten NSAIDs were analyzed in the Pearl River system in China (i.e., the Liuxi,
Zhujiang, and Shijing rivers). Zaho et al. [19] were able to detect five of them by gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry under negative chemical ionization mode.
NSAIDs salicylic acid, ibuprofen, diclofenac, mefenamic acid, and naproxen were
measured with average concentrations between 11.2 and 102 ng/L in the mentioned
rivers. Authors observed spatially considerable variations in concentrations for all
pharmaceutical products in the three rivers. It was discovered that the water of the
Shijing River is the main source of discharge from the Zhujiang River.
Bound and Voulvoulis [27] analyzed surface water samples from the southeast of
England on the River Thames by GC-MS, detecting upstream concentrations of
ibuprofen and paracetamol at 783 and 264 ng/L, respectively, while downstream the
maximum concentrations of these drugs were 846 and 165 ng/L. In this investigation, samples from water treatment plants in West London were also studied,
revealing that apparently these waters were not a path for the release of selected
drugs into the environment.
In a study carried out by Paíga et al. [39], the concentration of ibuprofen was
determined by solid-phase extraction of the analyte and subsequent determination
with liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection in surface waters of
rivers in the northern area of Portugal, which is one of the most densely populated
areas of the country. Their results indicated the highest concentration of ibuprofen in
the Lima River, with concentrations of 723 ng/L.
The concentrations of the five most frequently used NSAIDs (ibuprofen,
diclofenac, naproxen, ketoprofen, and indomethacin) were determined in the Elbe
river basin in the Czech Republic. For quantification of NSAIDs, the methodology
combined pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr) derivatization with highly sensitive
two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GCxGCTOFMS). This study determined that ibuprofen was the most abundant NSAID with
a maximum concentration of 3,210 ng/L, followed by naproxen, diclofenac, and
ketoprofen (1,423.8, 1,080, and 929.8 ng/L, respectively). Indomethacin was found
at a maximum concentration of 69.3 ng/L [30].
Some authors have chosen to use other methods of detecting drugs in aqueous
samples. Huebner et al. [54] determined the presence of diclofenac in the Isar River
and Lake Wörthsee in the German Bavaria using a highly sensitive ELISA developed to detect antibodies against diclofenac. Although the concentrations in their
68
L. I. Castro-Pastrana et al.
solid phase. Their results show that ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, and diclofenac
had maximum concentrations of 31, 57, 99, and 144, respectively, in solid phase (μg/
kg) and 165, 166, 192, and 243 μg/L in liquid phase. As is evident, the highest
concentrations of NSAIDs were found in the aqueous samples.
In four different points of the Aisonas River in northern Greece, water samples
were taken to determine the presence of ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and
diclofenac by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The Aisonas
River receives treated municipal wastewater. NSAIDs were detected mainly in the
part of the river that receives water from the wastewater treatment plant. The highest
average concentration detected was for diclofenac with 432 ng/L [32].
Ten NSAIDs were analyzed in the Pearl River system in China (i.e., the Liuxi,
Zhujiang, and Shijing rivers). Zaho et al. [19] were able to detect five of them by gas
chromatography and mass spectrometry under negative chemical ionization mode.
NSAIDs salicylic acid, ibuprofen, diclofenac, mefenamic acid, and naproxen were
measured with average concentrations between 11.2 and 102 ng/L in the mentioned
rivers. Authors observed spatially considerable variations in concentrations for all
pharmaceutical products in the three rivers. It was discovered that the water of the
Shijing River is the main source of discharge from the Zhujiang River.
Bound and Voulvoulis [27] analyzed surface water samples from the southeast of
England on the River Thames by GC-MS, detecting upstream concentrations of
ibuprofen and paracetamol at 783 and 264 ng/L, respectively, while downstream the
maximum concentrations of these drugs were 846 and 165 ng/L. In this investigation, samples from water treatment plants in West London were also studied,
revealing that apparently these waters were not a path for the release of selected
drugs into the environment.
In a study carried out by Paíga et al. [39], the concentration of ibuprofen was
determined by solid-phase extraction of the analyte and subsequent determination
with liquid chromatography coupled to fluorescence detection in surface waters of
rivers in the northern area of Portugal, which is one of the most densely populated
areas of the country. Their results indicated the highest concentration of ibuprofen in
the Lima River, with concentrations of 723 ng/L.
The concentrations of the five most frequently used NSAIDs (ibuprofen,
diclofenac, naproxen, ketoprofen, and indomethacin) were determined in the Elbe
river basin in the Czech Republic. For quantification of NSAIDs, the methodology
combined pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFBBr) derivatization with highly sensitive
two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GCxGCTOFMS). This study determined that ibuprofen was the most abundant NSAID with
a maximum concentration of 3,210 ng/L, followed by naproxen, diclofenac, and
ketoprofen (1,423.8, 1,080, and 929.8 ng/L, respectively). Indomethacin was found
at a maximum concentration of 69.3 ng/L [30].
Some authors have chosen to use other methods of detecting drugs in aqueous
samples. Huebner et al. [54] determined the presence of diclofenac in the Isar River
and Lake Wörthsee in the German Bavaria using a highly sensitive ELISA developed to detect antibodies against diclofenac. Although the concentrations in their
68
L. I. Castro-Pastrana et al.