respectively. For the risk assessment of pharmaceutical products, the expected
concentration without effect (PNEC) was estimated, based on the ecotoxicity values
reported in various studies and then the hazard quotient (HQ). The HQ were less than
one for the eight pharmaceutical products evaluated, including acetylsalicylic acid
(HQ ¼ 0.0014) and naproxen (0.0028). These results indicate that the probability of
toxicity in the aquatic ecosystem is low and, therefore, there may not be a considerable overall risk.
The importance of this study is that, due to the lack of wastewater treatment
facilities in Pakistan, wastewater is discharged directly through urban drains, which
can cause a large load of contaminants of emerging concern and possible risks
environmental. So, this study focused on the evaluation of the occurrence and risk
of 52 pharmaceutical and personal care products of various kinds, in water and
sediment samples from urban drainage and Lahore canals (the second city with the
highest population density), Pakistan. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories were the
pharmaceutical products predominantly detected in sewage from urban drains and
surface water from canals. The highest concentration was observed for acetaminophen, with an average concentration of 13,880 ng L
À1 , followed by ibuprofen
(2,300 ng L
À1 ), naproxen (1970 ng L
À1 ), diclofenac (470 ng L
À1 ), and ketoprofen
(132 ng L
À1 ). Another relevant aspect that the study showed was that population
density has a significant correlation with the level of pharmaceutical and personal
care products in surface waters, in addition to one of the drainage systems affected
by the direct discharge of wastewater from the nearby industrial area. Regarding the
environmental risk assessment, acetaminophen showed the highest RQ value of 18.0
over Daphnia, which indicates a high risk in wastewater. The other antiinflammatories that showed an RQ 1 and therefore a high ecological risk were
ibuprofen and diclofenac, while naproxen and ketoprofen showed minimal risk in
surface waters, with a high or medium environmental risk in wastewater (Ashfaq
et al. [7]).
The occurrence of 24 pharmaceutical products, including ibuprofen and
diclofenac, was evaluated in 75 water samples collected in 4 bays in Uganda, in
the Lake Victoria region. Ibuprofen was detected in all water samples
(6–780 ng L
À1 ), while diclofenac was only present in water samples from Murchison
Bay (2–160 ng L
À1 ). The ecotoxicological risk assessment showed that diclofenac
presents a high toxic risk (RQ ¼ 3.2) for aquatic organisms in the lake, while
ibuprofen presents a medium risk (RQ ¼ 0.39). This study is the first of its kind to
report the levels and ecotoxicological risks of pharmaceutical compounds in the
waters of Lake Victoria, Uganda, and East Africa as a whole (Nantaba et al. [32]).
2 Legal Framework
Pharmaceuticals are a subset of micropollutants, present in the environment in trace
concentrations that, due to their persistent nature, are of particular concern since little
is known about how mixtures of pharmaceutical residues, found in different
Risk Evaluation and Legal Framework of the Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs. . .
331
concentration without effect (PNEC) was estimated, based on the ecotoxicity values
reported in various studies and then the hazard quotient (HQ). The HQ were less than
one for the eight pharmaceutical products evaluated, including acetylsalicylic acid
(HQ ¼ 0.0014) and naproxen (0.0028). These results indicate that the probability of
toxicity in the aquatic ecosystem is low and, therefore, there may not be a considerable overall risk.
The importance of this study is that, due to the lack of wastewater treatment
facilities in Pakistan, wastewater is discharged directly through urban drains, which
can cause a large load of contaminants of emerging concern and possible risks
environmental. So, this study focused on the evaluation of the occurrence and risk
of 52 pharmaceutical and personal care products of various kinds, in water and
sediment samples from urban drainage and Lahore canals (the second city with the
highest population density), Pakistan. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories were the
pharmaceutical products predominantly detected in sewage from urban drains and
surface water from canals. The highest concentration was observed for acetaminophen, with an average concentration of 13,880 ng L
À1 , followed by ibuprofen
(2,300 ng L
À1 ), naproxen (1970 ng L
À1 ), diclofenac (470 ng L
À1 ), and ketoprofen
(132 ng L
À1 ). Another relevant aspect that the study showed was that population
density has a significant correlation with the level of pharmaceutical and personal
care products in surface waters, in addition to one of the drainage systems affected
by the direct discharge of wastewater from the nearby industrial area. Regarding the
environmental risk assessment, acetaminophen showed the highest RQ value of 18.0
over Daphnia, which indicates a high risk in wastewater. The other antiinflammatories that showed an RQ 1 and therefore a high ecological risk were
ibuprofen and diclofenac, while naproxen and ketoprofen showed minimal risk in
surface waters, with a high or medium environmental risk in wastewater (Ashfaq
et al. [7]).
The occurrence of 24 pharmaceutical products, including ibuprofen and
diclofenac, was evaluated in 75 water samples collected in 4 bays in Uganda, in
the Lake Victoria region. Ibuprofen was detected in all water samples
(6–780 ng L
À1 ), while diclofenac was only present in water samples from Murchison
Bay (2–160 ng L
À1 ). The ecotoxicological risk assessment showed that diclofenac
presents a high toxic risk (RQ ¼ 3.2) for aquatic organisms in the lake, while
ibuprofen presents a medium risk (RQ ¼ 0.39). This study is the first of its kind to
report the levels and ecotoxicological risks of pharmaceutical compounds in the
waters of Lake Victoria, Uganda, and East Africa as a whole (Nantaba et al. [32]).
2 Legal Framework
Pharmaceuticals are a subset of micropollutants, present in the environment in trace
concentrations that, due to their persistent nature, are of particular concern since little
is known about how mixtures of pharmaceutical residues, found in different
Risk Evaluation and Legal Framework of the Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs. . .
331