organisms, while for ketoprofen the value obtained was between 1 and 10, which
means a moderate risk for aquatic organisms. Regarding the environmental hazard
index (PBT), diclofenac and ibuprofen obtained the maximum PBT Index value of
9, indicating a great potential to cause damage to the environment, ketoprofen and
naproxen showed a PBT index of 6, indicative from an average danger to the
environment, and, finally, acetaminophen obtained a PBT index of 3, which indicates a low hazard.
An exhaustive study was conducted in which the seasonal occurrence, elimination, and environmental risk assessment of 55 pharmaceutical products and personal
care products were evaluated; the study was conducted over a year, collecting
samples from the treatment plants of wastewater located in Volos, Greece. The
risk coefficient (RQ) of each pharmaceutical product was evaluated by calculating
the relationship between the average environmental concentration (highest concentration found in the water samples) and the predicted no-effect concentration
(PNEC). Acute and chronic toxicity values for fish, invertebrates, and algae were
obtained. According to the results obtained for acute toxicity in fish, diclofenac
presents a high risk (RQ > 1), while salicylic acid presents a medium risk. Regarding
chronic toxicity problems, diclofenac also showed a high risk in fish. No compound
appears to be toxic to invertebrates and algae. Finally, according to the environmental risk assessment data, diclofenac proves to be potentially dangerous for the aquatic
ecosystem; the authors recommend that this compound should be included in
specific monitoring campaigns on a regular basis to provide additional information
on possible risks (Papageorgiou et al. [27]).
The presence of 48 emerging compounds of concern in wastewater and Slovenian
surface waters was determined. The environmental risk was assessed by risk quotients (RQ) by calculating it as follows: RQ ¼ MEC/PNEC. No anti-inflammatory
evaluated in this study presented a high risk to the environment, having an RQ of
0.0163, 0.0280, 0.0844, and 0.00398, for diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, and
ketoprofen, respectively (Česen et al. [12]).
This study conducted in Cuernavaca, Morelos (Mexico), is presented as the first
study known to date on the presence of pharmaceutical products in surface and
wastewater of this Mexican state. In general, the most abundant pharmaceuticals in
surface waters were the anti-inflammatory drugs naproxen (732–4,880 ng L
À1 ),
acetaminophen (354–4,460 ng L
À1 ), and diclofenac (258–1,398 ng L
À1 ). Even
though some of the most abundant compounds showed a good disposal (97%)
during the wastewater treatment, the concentrations downstream of the wastewater
treatment plant were slightly lower than upstream. The authors suggest the existence
of additional untreated sewage inlets in the river. The risk that pharmaceutical
products may represent for the aquatic environment was estimated through their
HQ at three trophic levels, representative of the aquatic ecosystem (algae, daphidae,
and fish). HQs were calculated as the ratio between the pharmaceutical MEC
(highest concentration found in the analyzed samples) and its PNEC (calculated by
dividing the lowest acute toxicity value reported in the literature reviewed for the
three trophic levels selected by the relevant evaluation factor (usually 1,000)). Based
on the HQ values obtained, the concentrations of ibuprofen (HQ ¼ 111), diclofenac
Risk Evaluation and Legal Framework of the Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs. . .
329
means a moderate risk for aquatic organisms. Regarding the environmental hazard
index (PBT), diclofenac and ibuprofen obtained the maximum PBT Index value of
9, indicating a great potential to cause damage to the environment, ketoprofen and
naproxen showed a PBT index of 6, indicative from an average danger to the
environment, and, finally, acetaminophen obtained a PBT index of 3, which indicates a low hazard.
An exhaustive study was conducted in which the seasonal occurrence, elimination, and environmental risk assessment of 55 pharmaceutical products and personal
care products were evaluated; the study was conducted over a year, collecting
samples from the treatment plants of wastewater located in Volos, Greece. The
risk coefficient (RQ) of each pharmaceutical product was evaluated by calculating
the relationship between the average environmental concentration (highest concentration found in the water samples) and the predicted no-effect concentration
(PNEC). Acute and chronic toxicity values for fish, invertebrates, and algae were
obtained. According to the results obtained for acute toxicity in fish, diclofenac
presents a high risk (RQ > 1), while salicylic acid presents a medium risk. Regarding
chronic toxicity problems, diclofenac also showed a high risk in fish. No compound
appears to be toxic to invertebrates and algae. Finally, according to the environmental risk assessment data, diclofenac proves to be potentially dangerous for the aquatic
ecosystem; the authors recommend that this compound should be included in
specific monitoring campaigns on a regular basis to provide additional information
on possible risks (Papageorgiou et al. [27]).
The presence of 48 emerging compounds of concern in wastewater and Slovenian
surface waters was determined. The environmental risk was assessed by risk quotients (RQ) by calculating it as follows: RQ ¼ MEC/PNEC. No anti-inflammatory
evaluated in this study presented a high risk to the environment, having an RQ of
0.0163, 0.0280, 0.0844, and 0.00398, for diclofenac, ibuprofen, naproxen, and
ketoprofen, respectively (Česen et al. [12]).
This study conducted in Cuernavaca, Morelos (Mexico), is presented as the first
study known to date on the presence of pharmaceutical products in surface and
wastewater of this Mexican state. In general, the most abundant pharmaceuticals in
surface waters were the anti-inflammatory drugs naproxen (732–4,880 ng L
À1 ),
acetaminophen (354–4,460 ng L
À1 ), and diclofenac (258–1,398 ng L
À1 ). Even
though some of the most abundant compounds showed a good disposal (97%)
during the wastewater treatment, the concentrations downstream of the wastewater
treatment plant were slightly lower than upstream. The authors suggest the existence
of additional untreated sewage inlets in the river. The risk that pharmaceutical
products may represent for the aquatic environment was estimated through their
HQ at three trophic levels, representative of the aquatic ecosystem (algae, daphidae,
and fish). HQs were calculated as the ratio between the pharmaceutical MEC
(highest concentration found in the analyzed samples) and its PNEC (calculated by
dividing the lowest acute toxicity value reported in the literature reviewed for the
three trophic levels selected by the relevant evaluation factor (usually 1,000)). Based
on the HQ values obtained, the concentrations of ibuprofen (HQ ¼ 111), diclofenac
Risk Evaluation and Legal Framework of the Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs. . .
329