14 Biological Technologies for the Elimination of Naproxen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
14.1
Bacterial Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 314
14.2
Biodegradation and Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
14.3
Use of Bacterial Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
14.4
Biodegradation by Fungi and Lacquer Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
15 Conclusion . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 315
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Abstract Chronic pain is one of the most important causes of disability worldwide
and represents a major public health challenge. The presence of inflammation is a
common underlying mechanism of chronic pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), COX2-selective and non-selective, showing analgesic and antiinflammatory properties, are useful options for the treatment of chronic pain.
Non-metabolized pharmaceutical products and their metabolites are excreted and
enter sewage as biologically active substances. The accumulation of emerging
pollutants, such as active pharmaceutical ingredients and their metabolites in the
aquatic environment, has recently become a serious problem due to their
bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity potential that affects living organisms. Pharmaceutical products considered as emerging pollutants are partially removed during the
treatment of wastewater that contains them and are detected in groundwater, surface
water, and wastewater effluent, as well as in drinking water at concentrations ranging
from a few nanograms per liter to 15 μg/L. The elimination of these contaminants is
essential due to the toxicity that causes in the organisms. Biological techniques that
include microorganisms in their processes could be more effective for the elimination of pharmaceutical contaminants compared to the physicochemical techniques
currently used.
Keywords Aquatic ecosystems, Bacterial biodegradation, Biological technologies,
Emerging pollutants, Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
1 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatories
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are part of a heterogeneous group
of active ingredients with different chemical structures but similar therapeutic and
adverse effects [1]. They act as non-selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase, COX-1
and COX-2 isoforms, which play a crucial role in prostaglandin synthesis [2].
Daily, about 30 million people worldwide use nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs as a treatment for chronic inflammation, with variations in elimination, halflife, routes of administration, and tolerance of these pharmaceuticals [3].
In 2017, among the ten most studied NSAIDs detected in natural environments
are ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen. The maximum concentrations of these
304
N. Ramírez-Durán et al.
14.1
Bacterial Biodegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 314
14.2
Biodegradation and Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
14.3
Use of Bacterial Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
14.4
Biodegradation by Fungi and Lacquer Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
15 Conclusion . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 315
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Abstract Chronic pain is one of the most important causes of disability worldwide
and represents a major public health challenge. The presence of inflammation is a
common underlying mechanism of chronic pain. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), COX2-selective and non-selective, showing analgesic and antiinflammatory properties, are useful options for the treatment of chronic pain.
Non-metabolized pharmaceutical products and their metabolites are excreted and
enter sewage as biologically active substances. The accumulation of emerging
pollutants, such as active pharmaceutical ingredients and their metabolites in the
aquatic environment, has recently become a serious problem due to their
bioaccumulation and ecotoxicity potential that affects living organisms. Pharmaceutical products considered as emerging pollutants are partially removed during the
treatment of wastewater that contains them and are detected in groundwater, surface
water, and wastewater effluent, as well as in drinking water at concentrations ranging
from a few nanograms per liter to 15 μg/L. The elimination of these contaminants is
essential due to the toxicity that causes in the organisms. Biological techniques that
include microorganisms in their processes could be more effective for the elimination of pharmaceutical contaminants compared to the physicochemical techniques
currently used.
Keywords Aquatic ecosystems, Bacterial biodegradation, Biological technologies,
Emerging pollutants, Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
1 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatories
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are part of a heterogeneous group
of active ingredients with different chemical structures but similar therapeutic and
adverse effects [1]. They act as non-selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase, COX-1
and COX-2 isoforms, which play a crucial role in prostaglandin synthesis [2].
Daily, about 30 million people worldwide use nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs as a treatment for chronic inflammation, with variations in elimination, halflife, routes of administration, and tolerance of these pharmaceuticals [3].
In 2017, among the ten most studied NSAIDs detected in natural environments
are ibuprofen, diclofenac, and naproxen. The maximum concentrations of these
304
N. Ramírez-Durán et al.