degradation or enhancement of photodegradation. Further research into the mechanisms behind microalgal-assisted degradation is needed in order to optimize the
treatment system.
2.1.4 Fungi-Based Process
Considerable research has been devoted to test the performance of different white-rot
fungi (WRF) for the removal of NSAID compounds. For example, Tran et al. [9]
observed the complete removal of the NSAID compounds ibuprofen, naproxen,
diclofenac, and ketoprofen by a white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor over 7 days of
inoculation. Cajthaml et al. [57] investigated the performance of eight different
strains of WRF for the removal of several NSAID compounds, including diclofenac,
ibuprofen, and ketoprofen; while almost all tested fungal strains were able to degrade
the selected NSAIDs, to some degree, the strains Irpex lacteus and Pleurotus
ostreatus provided the highest removal efficiency of NSAIDs (i.e., 90% and 80%,
respectively), after 7 days of incubation. Marco-Urrea et al. [47] found that four
different strains of WRF were able to completely remove the NSAID ibuprofen from
culture but were ineffective at removing carbamazepine and clofibric acid. In another
study by Marco-Urrea et al. [47], the WRF strain T. versicolor was capable of
removing diclofenac (70%) from the culture. The authors suggested that at least
two different mechanisms were involved in the degradation of diclofenac: (1) cytochrome P450 system and (2) laccase catalysis. However, to date the application of
fungi for wastewater treatment is still at laboratory-scale studies as scale-up of fungal
cultures is challenging.
2.2 Advanced Oxidation Process
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) aim at chemically generating strong oxidants
(e.g., hydroxyl radicals) to transform persistent organic compounds such as NSAIDs
into biodegradable substances. The hydroxyl radicals (
•
OH) can be generated using
catalysts (electrodes, metal oxides), irradiation (UV light, solar light, ultrasounds),
and strong oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) or ozone (O 3 ). These
methods can be used separately or in combination. AOPs have been used to remove
organic pollutants from reclaimed effluent and groundwater [58]. Numerous studies
in the literature have demonstrated the effectiveness as well as limitation of AOPs for
the removal of trace organic contaminants from wastewater [59–63]. In this chapter,
we focused mostly on ozone and UV oxidation.
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treatment system.
2.1.4 Fungi-Based Process
Considerable research has been devoted to test the performance of different white-rot
fungi (WRF) for the removal of NSAID compounds. For example, Tran et al. [9]
observed the complete removal of the NSAID compounds ibuprofen, naproxen,
diclofenac, and ketoprofen by a white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor over 7 days of
inoculation. Cajthaml et al. [57] investigated the performance of eight different
strains of WRF for the removal of several NSAID compounds, including diclofenac,
ibuprofen, and ketoprofen; while almost all tested fungal strains were able to degrade
the selected NSAIDs, to some degree, the strains Irpex lacteus and Pleurotus
ostreatus provided the highest removal efficiency of NSAIDs (i.e., 90% and 80%,
respectively), after 7 days of incubation. Marco-Urrea et al. [47] found that four
different strains of WRF were able to completely remove the NSAID ibuprofen from
culture but were ineffective at removing carbamazepine and clofibric acid. In another
study by Marco-Urrea et al. [47], the WRF strain T. versicolor was capable of
removing diclofenac (70%) from the culture. The authors suggested that at least
two different mechanisms were involved in the degradation of diclofenac: (1) cytochrome P450 system and (2) laccase catalysis. However, to date the application of
fungi for wastewater treatment is still at laboratory-scale studies as scale-up of fungal
cultures is challenging.
2.2 Advanced Oxidation Process
Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) aim at chemically generating strong oxidants
(e.g., hydroxyl radicals) to transform persistent organic compounds such as NSAIDs
into biodegradable substances. The hydroxyl radicals (
•
OH) can be generated using
catalysts (electrodes, metal oxides), irradiation (UV light, solar light, ultrasounds),
and strong oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) or ozone (O 3 ). These
methods can be used separately or in combination. AOPs have been used to remove
organic pollutants from reclaimed effluent and groundwater [58]. Numerous studies
in the literature have demonstrated the effectiveness as well as limitation of AOPs for
the removal of trace organic contaminants from wastewater [59–63]. In this chapter,
we focused mostly on ozone and UV oxidation.
226
L. N. Nguyen et al.