high, unrealistic concentrations, sublethal effects were caused by low, environmentally relevant concentrations of these drugs. For these reasons, further studies
represent a priority in order to enlarge the knowledge on NSAID toxicity towards
aquatic organisms and to shed light on their real ecological hazard towards aquatic
communities.
Keywords Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Invertebrates, Paracetamol, Toxicity
1 NSAIDs in Freshwater Ecosystems
In the last two decades, pharmaceuticals have been identified as emerging contaminants for aquatic ecosystems. Emerging contaminants are synthetic or natural
compounds that has recently been found in natural ecosystems and for which
environmental or public health risks are limited or yet to be established. These
molecules are not routinely monitored, and, even if their environmental concentrations are low, they are suspected to cause adverse effects towards ecosystems
[1, 2]. The presence of pharmaceutical compounds in aquatic ecosystems represents
one of the main concerns that ecotoxicology has to face in recent years [3–5]. Pharmaceuticals are extensively and increasingly being used both in human and veterinary medicine, as well as in agriculture and aquaculture [5]. After the use, these
molecules are excreted in their native form or as active metabolites entering the
sewage, which has been individuated as the main spreading pharmaceuticals after
therapeutic use or improper disposal of unused medicines to the environment. As
traditional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have a limited efficiency for the
removal of several therapeutic drugs, these molecules are discharged in WWTP
effluents in unneglectable concentrations, resulting in contamination of surface
waters and, rarely, groundwater and drinking water [4]. Moreover, sewage sludge
originated from WWTPs and manure from zootechnical breeding farms have been
identified as a secondary source of pharmaceuticals, contributing to aquatic contamination as a consequence of their use in agriculture and the subsequent runoff.
Pharmaceuticals have been designed to have a specific mode of action, targeting
specific organs, metabolic pathways, or receptors in order to modulate physiological
functions of the orgnism, to treat a desease and to restore the health of the organism.
Thus, because of their usefulness, pharmaceuticals play a pivotal role in our society
and are commonly used, and often abused, worldwide. For instance, in the European
Union (EU) alone, it has been estimated that about 3,000 different substances are
commonly used in human therapy such as anti-inflammatory drugs, contraceptives,
antibiotics, β-blockers, lipid regulators, neuroactive compounds, and many others
[3]. Similarly, a large number of these molecules are used also in veterinary
applications. Following the trend of production and use, several therapeutics commonly used in human and veterinary therapy as contraceptives, β-blockers,
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M. Parolini
represent a priority in order to enlarge the knowledge on NSAID toxicity towards
aquatic organisms and to shed light on their real ecological hazard towards aquatic
communities.
Keywords Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Invertebrates, Paracetamol, Toxicity
1 NSAIDs in Freshwater Ecosystems
In the last two decades, pharmaceuticals have been identified as emerging contaminants for aquatic ecosystems. Emerging contaminants are synthetic or natural
compounds that has recently been found in natural ecosystems and for which
environmental or public health risks are limited or yet to be established. These
molecules are not routinely monitored, and, even if their environmental concentrations are low, they are suspected to cause adverse effects towards ecosystems
[1, 2]. The presence of pharmaceutical compounds in aquatic ecosystems represents
one of the main concerns that ecotoxicology has to face in recent years [3–5]. Pharmaceuticals are extensively and increasingly being used both in human and veterinary medicine, as well as in agriculture and aquaculture [5]. After the use, these
molecules are excreted in their native form or as active metabolites entering the
sewage, which has been individuated as the main spreading pharmaceuticals after
therapeutic use or improper disposal of unused medicines to the environment. As
traditional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have a limited efficiency for the
removal of several therapeutic drugs, these molecules are discharged in WWTP
effluents in unneglectable concentrations, resulting in contamination of surface
waters and, rarely, groundwater and drinking water [4]. Moreover, sewage sludge
originated from WWTPs and manure from zootechnical breeding farms have been
identified as a secondary source of pharmaceuticals, contributing to aquatic contamination as a consequence of their use in agriculture and the subsequent runoff.
Pharmaceuticals have been designed to have a specific mode of action, targeting
specific organs, metabolic pathways, or receptors in order to modulate physiological
functions of the orgnism, to treat a desease and to restore the health of the organism.
Thus, because of their usefulness, pharmaceuticals play a pivotal role in our society
and are commonly used, and often abused, worldwide. For instance, in the European
Union (EU) alone, it has been estimated that about 3,000 different substances are
commonly used in human therapy such as anti-inflammatory drugs, contraceptives,
antibiotics, β-blockers, lipid regulators, neuroactive compounds, and many others
[3]. Similarly, a large number of these molecules are used also in veterinary
applications. Following the trend of production and use, several therapeutics commonly used in human and veterinary therapy as contraceptives, β-blockers,
148
M. Parolini