drinking water. NSAIDs are likely to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms such as
Mytilus galloprovincialis. Furthermore, toxic effects such as oxidative stress, developmental abnormalities, hepatotoxicity, immunosuppressive effects, and hematological alterations have been found in several freshwater species exposed to these
pollutants. Therefore, NSAIDs are a threat to the human being as well as to our
environment. This review comprehensively discusses the worldwide consumption of
NSAIDs, their occurrence in the aquatic environments, and the toxic effects produced by these drugs in nontarget organisms. This is to raise awareness of the
negative consequences of their occurrence in freshwater ecosystems and promote
the creation of new alternatives for their removal from water.
Keywords Fate, NSAIDs, Occurrence, Toxic effects
1 Introduction
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are an important heterogeneous
group of drugs prescribed to treat inflammation, pain, and fever [1]. Their therapeutic effects are mainly mediated by the inhibition of cyclooxygenase isoforms,
COX-1 and COX-2, involved in the synthesis of different prostaglandins from
arachidonic acid [2]. Although, several studies have informed about the high toxicity
and side effects of these drugs in humans, NSAIDs are among the most consumed
drugs worldwide. Furthermore, it is expected their consumption steadily increases in
the forthcoming years, as the prevalence of painful conditions, such as osteoarthritis
and inflammatory diseases, will also likely to increase [3].
The growing consumption of NSAIDs reflects the ubiquitous occurrence of these
pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Numerous studies have reported the
presence of these pollutants in several water bodies at concentrations ranging from
ng/L to μg/L [4, 5]. This is a problem of global concern as NSAIDs tend to
accumulate and produce oxidative stress in aquatic species [6–8].
Since NSAIDs are often found at high concentrations in the aquatic environment
and can exhibit different toxicities in nontarget organisms, a timely review seems
appropriate. The aim of this work was to comprehensively investigate the occurrence
of NSAIDs in the aquatic environment and discuss the toxic effects of NSAIDs
toward different aquatic organisms.
2
G. A. Elizalde-Velázquez and L. M. Gómez-Oliván
Mytilus galloprovincialis. Furthermore, toxic effects such as oxidative stress, developmental abnormalities, hepatotoxicity, immunosuppressive effects, and hematological alterations have been found in several freshwater species exposed to these
pollutants. Therefore, NSAIDs are a threat to the human being as well as to our
environment. This review comprehensively discusses the worldwide consumption of
NSAIDs, their occurrence in the aquatic environments, and the toxic effects produced by these drugs in nontarget organisms. This is to raise awareness of the
negative consequences of their occurrence in freshwater ecosystems and promote
the creation of new alternatives for their removal from water.
Keywords Fate, NSAIDs, Occurrence, Toxic effects
1 Introduction
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are an important heterogeneous
group of drugs prescribed to treat inflammation, pain, and fever [1]. Their therapeutic effects are mainly mediated by the inhibition of cyclooxygenase isoforms,
COX-1 and COX-2, involved in the synthesis of different prostaglandins from
arachidonic acid [2]. Although, several studies have informed about the high toxicity
and side effects of these drugs in humans, NSAIDs are among the most consumed
drugs worldwide. Furthermore, it is expected their consumption steadily increases in
the forthcoming years, as the prevalence of painful conditions, such as osteoarthritis
and inflammatory diseases, will also likely to increase [3].
The growing consumption of NSAIDs reflects the ubiquitous occurrence of these
pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Numerous studies have reported the
presence of these pollutants in several water bodies at concentrations ranging from
ng/L to μg/L [4, 5]. This is a problem of global concern as NSAIDs tend to
accumulate and produce oxidative stress in aquatic species [6–8].
Since NSAIDs are often found at high concentrations in the aquatic environment
and can exhibit different toxicities in nontarget organisms, a timely review seems
appropriate. The aim of this work was to comprehensively investigate the occurrence
of NSAIDs in the aquatic environment and discuss the toxic effects of NSAIDs
toward different aquatic organisms.
2
G. A. Elizalde-Velázquez and L. M. Gómez-Oliván