492
J. A. Dar et al.
accumulated the programmed physiological protection, which could lead to damage
(Henry 2008; Williams et al. 2015). Mid-winter melts may alter soil temperature due
to exposure and thereby affect soil flora and fauna and such melts also lead to the
encasement of ice crystals and cause anoxia (Coulson et al. 2000; Williams et al.
2015). Early ice breakups also affect and cause mortality in higher organisms like
polar bears by shortening the length of the winter-feeding season and lengthening
the summer fasting season (Regehr et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2015).
3 Other Exacerbatory Factors
3.1 Deforestation
Deforestation is one of the main anthropogenic factors that exacerbate the effects of
global warming and climate change. It is defined as “forest clearance and subsequent
conversion to another land-use, which means the permanent loss of forest cover (Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2013; Pravalie 2018). Deforestation, although
prevalent worldwide, is predominant in the tropics, where about 100 Mha were
cleared between 2000 and 2012, of which 50, 30 and 20% were in Latin America,
southeast Asia and Africa respectively (Hansen et al. 2013; Keenan et al. 2015;
Kim et al. 2015; Mitchard 2018). The causes for deforestation vary by location:
mining and large-scale agriculture in Latin America, plantations of palm-oil, pulp
and paper in Southeast Asia and small-scale agriculture, mining, plantations, etc. in
Africa (Zarin et al. 2016; Mitchard 2018). Deforestation has several severe ecological
and economic implications such as reduction in the regional rainfall and increasing
the risk of forest fires leading to further drying and dying of forest flora and fauna
(Rinawati et al. 2013). Deforestation not only damage the felled trees, but also causes
collateral damage to the neighbouring trees (de Andrade et al. 2017). It is the main
cause of intense water erosion in Africa (Pravalie 2018). Deforestation significantly
contributes to global climate change via two principal mechanisms: by emitting to
carbon dioxide and by causing radiative cooling by increasing the surface albedo
(Bala et al. 2007; van der Werf et al. 2009; Lee et al. 2011; Pravalie 2018).
3.2 Habitat Fragmentation
Intact forest ecosystems offer better services than the disturbed ones. In this context, habitat fragmentation is a serious ecological threat to climate change due to
lowering biodiversity, altering ecosystem functions, making the ecosystems more
vulnerable to forest fires, pest attacks, etc. Fragmentation of habitats affects species
dispersal and migration patterns; the effects are more pronounced in forest edges
than in the core fragments (MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Kappelle et al. 1999).
J. A. Dar et al.
accumulated the programmed physiological protection, which could lead to damage
(Henry 2008; Williams et al. 2015). Mid-winter melts may alter soil temperature due
to exposure and thereby affect soil flora and fauna and such melts also lead to the
encasement of ice crystals and cause anoxia (Coulson et al. 2000; Williams et al.
2015). Early ice breakups also affect and cause mortality in higher organisms like
polar bears by shortening the length of the winter-feeding season and lengthening
the summer fasting season (Regehr et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2015).
3 Other Exacerbatory Factors
3.1 Deforestation
Deforestation is one of the main anthropogenic factors that exacerbate the effects of
global warming and climate change. It is defined as “forest clearance and subsequent
conversion to another land-use, which means the permanent loss of forest cover (Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2013; Pravalie 2018). Deforestation, although
prevalent worldwide, is predominant in the tropics, where about 100 Mha were
cleared between 2000 and 2012, of which 50, 30 and 20% were in Latin America,
southeast Asia and Africa respectively (Hansen et al. 2013; Keenan et al. 2015;
Kim et al. 2015; Mitchard 2018). The causes for deforestation vary by location:
mining and large-scale agriculture in Latin America, plantations of palm-oil, pulp
and paper in Southeast Asia and small-scale agriculture, mining, plantations, etc. in
Africa (Zarin et al. 2016; Mitchard 2018). Deforestation has several severe ecological
and economic implications such as reduction in the regional rainfall and increasing
the risk of forest fires leading to further drying and dying of forest flora and fauna
(Rinawati et al. 2013). Deforestation not only damage the felled trees, but also causes
collateral damage to the neighbouring trees (de Andrade et al. 2017). It is the main
cause of intense water erosion in Africa (Pravalie 2018). Deforestation significantly
contributes to global climate change via two principal mechanisms: by emitting to
carbon dioxide and by causing radiative cooling by increasing the surface albedo
(Bala et al. 2007; van der Werf et al. 2009; Lee et al. 2011; Pravalie 2018).
3.2 Habitat Fragmentation
Intact forest ecosystems offer better services than the disturbed ones. In this context, habitat fragmentation is a serious ecological threat to climate change due to
lowering biodiversity, altering ecosystem functions, making the ecosystems more
vulnerable to forest fires, pest attacks, etc. Fragmentation of habitats affects species
dispersal and migration patterns; the effects are more pronounced in forest edges
than in the core fragments (MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Kappelle et al. 1999).