490
J. A. Dar et al.
(Trumbore et al. 2015; Pravalie 2018). While many insects cause damage during
the growing season by defoliation, the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is known to kill trees (and therefore destroy several hectares of forests) by
feeding on the phloem and therefore curtailing the trees’ nutrient supply (Brown et al.
2010; Hicke et al. 2012; Pravalie 2018). Other infamous insect pests which kill huge
forest areas are the Aspen leaf miner (Phyllocnistis populiella), leaf blotch miner
(Micrurapteryx salicifoliella), southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), Janet’s
looper (Nepytia janetae), spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis), etc. (Bebber et al.
2013; Scheffers et al. 2016). The disease-causing plant pathogen and pest species
have moved poleward at the rate of 2–3.5 km per year since 1960s (Altizer et al.
2013; Scheffers et al. 2016).
The increase in heat waves, decrease in air and water qualities, extreme climatic
events like flooding, etc. could trigger the geographic expansion of vector-borne diseases and hence, high mortality among humans (Hernández-Delgado 2015; Abrams
et al. 2018). It has been projected that disease-causing pests and their vectors like
mosquitoes, ticks, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi could be carried off via
desert dust (or dry sand particles) to long distances, where they were previously absent
(Reiter 2001; Hernández-Delgado 2015). Anopheles mosquito that causes malaria,
a highly prevalent disease is now migrating upward and poleward (Siraj et al. 2014;
Pecl et al. 2017). Therefore, the disease outbreak impact of climate change among
forests and humans remains as one of the major challenges.
2.6 Impacts on Agriculture
There is a strong linkage between climate change, agriculture and nutrition threatening not only the agricultural sector, but also the associated livestock productivity
(Fanzo et al. 2018). Climate change, besides lowering crop yields also lowers the
nutritional quality of the crops produced (Myers et al. 2014; Morris et al. 2017).
Decline in crop yields might not be globally uniform as the hotter countries are
likely to be at a greater risk (Morris et al. 2017). Climate change is expected to cause
dry areas to become drier and wet areas to become wetter and such an increase in
water stress and heat stress (Cheung et al. 2010; Fanzo et al. 2018) would invariably
affect crop yields and crop nutritional values. Since agricultural lands are intensively
pressurized for increased yields due to monocropping, excess use of fertilizers and
pesticides, etc., a decline has been observed in the soil quality, which would in turn
affect the productivity and nutritional value (Fanzo et al. 2018). Desynchronization
of plant-pollinator interactions and decreasing trends in faunal diversity also drastically impair agricultural production. (Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services 2016; Ramirez and Kallarackal 2018). To counteract the
decreasing agricultural yields of major crops like wheat, genetical alterations are
currently being used by crossing the domesticated crops with wild strains (Hamilton
J. A. Dar et al.
(Trumbore et al. 2015; Pravalie 2018). While many insects cause damage during
the growing season by defoliation, the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is known to kill trees (and therefore destroy several hectares of forests) by
feeding on the phloem and therefore curtailing the trees’ nutrient supply (Brown et al.
2010; Hicke et al. 2012; Pravalie 2018). Other infamous insect pests which kill huge
forest areas are the Aspen leaf miner (Phyllocnistis populiella), leaf blotch miner
(Micrurapteryx salicifoliella), southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), Janet’s
looper (Nepytia janetae), spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis), etc. (Bebber et al.
2013; Scheffers et al. 2016). The disease-causing plant pathogen and pest species
have moved poleward at the rate of 2–3.5 km per year since 1960s (Altizer et al.
2013; Scheffers et al. 2016).
The increase in heat waves, decrease in air and water qualities, extreme climatic
events like flooding, etc. could trigger the geographic expansion of vector-borne diseases and hence, high mortality among humans (Hernández-Delgado 2015; Abrams
et al. 2018). It has been projected that disease-causing pests and their vectors like
mosquitoes, ticks, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi could be carried off via
desert dust (or dry sand particles) to long distances, where they were previously absent
(Reiter 2001; Hernández-Delgado 2015). Anopheles mosquito that causes malaria,
a highly prevalent disease is now migrating upward and poleward (Siraj et al. 2014;
Pecl et al. 2017). Therefore, the disease outbreak impact of climate change among
forests and humans remains as one of the major challenges.
2.6 Impacts on Agriculture
There is a strong linkage between climate change, agriculture and nutrition threatening not only the agricultural sector, but also the associated livestock productivity
(Fanzo et al. 2018). Climate change, besides lowering crop yields also lowers the
nutritional quality of the crops produced (Myers et al. 2014; Morris et al. 2017).
Decline in crop yields might not be globally uniform as the hotter countries are
likely to be at a greater risk (Morris et al. 2017). Climate change is expected to cause
dry areas to become drier and wet areas to become wetter and such an increase in
water stress and heat stress (Cheung et al. 2010; Fanzo et al. 2018) would invariably
affect crop yields and crop nutritional values. Since agricultural lands are intensively
pressurized for increased yields due to monocropping, excess use of fertilizers and
pesticides, etc., a decline has been observed in the soil quality, which would in turn
affect the productivity and nutritional value (Fanzo et al. 2018). Desynchronization
of plant-pollinator interactions and decreasing trends in faunal diversity also drastically impair agricultural production. (Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity
and Ecosystem Services 2016; Ramirez and Kallarackal 2018). To counteract the
decreasing agricultural yields of major crops like wheat, genetical alterations are
currently being used by crossing the domesticated crops with wild strains (Hamilton