Transitional Peri-urban Landscape …
443
Land use land cover conversion and allied impacts have been seen as the major factor
causing shift in natural resource based livelihoods.
(b) Disposal of residue and assimilative capacity
Research shows (Purushothaman et al. 2016) that Indian peri-urban areas indicate
a certain gradient from rural to urban only in case of indicators pertaining to environmental externalities. The controlling factors for peri-urbanization and rural-urban
linkages vary from one to another peri-urban area, which set the mandate to assess the
diversified sustainability concerns in peri-urban landscapes. The rural-urban fringe
in India is due to increasing impact of the urban area on nearby villages, whereas
in developed countries, it is due to diffusion of population. The realization of link
between urbanization and environment has been emerged in last three decades as a
major concern (Maiti and Agrawal 2005) as modern cities have grown in a haphazard
and unplanned manner due to fast industrialization (Jaysawal and Saha 2014).
Shaw (2005) discussed the environmental dimension of spreading urbanization.
The findings included problem of increased environmental vulnerability due to solid
wastes in the peri-urban areas, which can be managed by improved governance and
local initiatives. Another important environmental concern identified is the shifting
of polluting manufacturing industries to the periphery of the cities. This shift is
encouraged by available low-cost land, accessibility to unorganized workforce, weak
implementation of environmental regulations due to lack of awareness in the city
periphery (Kundu 2011). Growing environmental concerns generally lead to shifting
of large and polluting industries outside the city limit, thereby concentrating industrial
activities and settlements of working population as well in the periphery.
(c) Lack of physical infrastructure
The transitional peri-urban areas have been recognized in spatial and economic terms
in Indian context with regard to commodity flow, housing, peri-urban agriculture and
pollution in recent years. The Tier-1 cities in India have already faced environmental problems, which are evident from poor assimilative capacity (higher levels of
pollutants), supportive capacity and lack of basic infrastructures (Ramachandra and
Aithal 2013); those have been able to attract attention for appropriate environmental
planning and management. On the other hand, high level of urbanization has been
noticed in economically backward states too (Kundu 2011). Indian peri-urban areas
have weak basic services, and metropolitan peripheries fare poorly on access and
quality (World Bank 2013) and failing to generate any of the gains in income, happiness, and mobility that the US, Brazil and China have experienced (Chauvin et al.
2017). The migrant workers are also able to find an affordable shelter in the peripheral
zone of the city and along with a job in the industries and can avail a less troublesome
commute to the workplace even if it is in the city core (Kundu et al. 2002). Thus,
sprawling starts in the periphery which is not supported by adequate infrastructure
because of the sudden demand or its non-inclusion in urban administration.
The present study has also reported the inadequacy in basic services and infrastructure. The major drinking water sources in all the studied villages are open well
and hand pumps since 1990s. Only a few households from the low and medium urban
443
Land use land cover conversion and allied impacts have been seen as the major factor
causing shift in natural resource based livelihoods.
(b) Disposal of residue and assimilative capacity
Research shows (Purushothaman et al. 2016) that Indian peri-urban areas indicate
a certain gradient from rural to urban only in case of indicators pertaining to environmental externalities. The controlling factors for peri-urbanization and rural-urban
linkages vary from one to another peri-urban area, which set the mandate to assess the
diversified sustainability concerns in peri-urban landscapes. The rural-urban fringe
in India is due to increasing impact of the urban area on nearby villages, whereas
in developed countries, it is due to diffusion of population. The realization of link
between urbanization and environment has been emerged in last three decades as a
major concern (Maiti and Agrawal 2005) as modern cities have grown in a haphazard
and unplanned manner due to fast industrialization (Jaysawal and Saha 2014).
Shaw (2005) discussed the environmental dimension of spreading urbanization.
The findings included problem of increased environmental vulnerability due to solid
wastes in the peri-urban areas, which can be managed by improved governance and
local initiatives. Another important environmental concern identified is the shifting
of polluting manufacturing industries to the periphery of the cities. This shift is
encouraged by available low-cost land, accessibility to unorganized workforce, weak
implementation of environmental regulations due to lack of awareness in the city
periphery (Kundu 2011). Growing environmental concerns generally lead to shifting
of large and polluting industries outside the city limit, thereby concentrating industrial
activities and settlements of working population as well in the periphery.
(c) Lack of physical infrastructure
The transitional peri-urban areas have been recognized in spatial and economic terms
in Indian context with regard to commodity flow, housing, peri-urban agriculture and
pollution in recent years. The Tier-1 cities in India have already faced environmental problems, which are evident from poor assimilative capacity (higher levels of
pollutants), supportive capacity and lack of basic infrastructures (Ramachandra and
Aithal 2013); those have been able to attract attention for appropriate environmental
planning and management. On the other hand, high level of urbanization has been
noticed in economically backward states too (Kundu 2011). Indian peri-urban areas
have weak basic services, and metropolitan peripheries fare poorly on access and
quality (World Bank 2013) and failing to generate any of the gains in income, happiness, and mobility that the US, Brazil and China have experienced (Chauvin et al.
2017). The migrant workers are also able to find an affordable shelter in the peripheral
zone of the city and along with a job in the industries and can avail a less troublesome
commute to the workplace even if it is in the city core (Kundu et al. 2002). Thus,
sprawling starts in the periphery which is not supported by adequate infrastructure
because of the sudden demand or its non-inclusion in urban administration.
The present study has also reported the inadequacy in basic services and infrastructure. The major drinking water sources in all the studied villages are open well
and hand pumps since 1990s. Only a few households from the low and medium urban