16
G. Kumar et al.
resulting in reformulation of species communities, differential changes in species and
in their extirpation or extinction (Root et al. 2003). Effects of climate change on the
natural system may be diverse and range from change in the timing of phenological
events of plants to changes in species abundance, distribution, timing of reproduction
in animals and plants, animal and bird migration patterns, and frequency and severity
of pest and disease outbreaks and shifts in habitat, etc. (Perrings 2010; Bharali and
Khan 2011). Apart from these effects, the risk of extinction for already vulnerable
species is likely to increase (Thomas et al. 2004) because many species require a
particular time period to adapt themselves against the changing climatic conditions
(Menéndez et al. 2006).
6 Impacts on Coastal Ecosystems
Human pressure on coastal ecosystems will increase significantly in the coming
decades due to population growth, economic development, installation of energy
generation infrastructure in coastal and marine ecosystems, transportation networks and urbanization (Yáñez-Arancibia 2013, 2015). The analysis and implementation of coastal adaptation toward climate-resilient and sustainable coasts have
progressed more significantly in developed countries than in developing countries
(Wong et al. 2014). The use of combined approaches to coastal adaptation instead
of a single strategy, such as the combination of ecology and engineering, allows
for better preparation for a highly uncertain and dynamic coastal environment
(Cheong et al. 2013).
The biggest climate change challenge faced by the coastal ecosystem is the rising
sea level (McLeod and Salm 2006). The ongoing phenomenon of climate change
has been predicted to pose a major threat to the Indian mangroves (Sandilyan 2015).
Impacts of climate change on mangroves of coastal areas used to be influenced
by various factors including sea level rise, changes in river flow due to changes in
snowmelt and precipitation pattern in the catchment, changes in local temperature
and in storm surges (Mckee et al. 2012). Sea level rise (SLR) of up to 1 m has been
projected for the period 1990–2100 with substantial regional variation (IPCC 2007)
and mangroves have been found to be vulnerable to SLR and even a 1 m rise would
result in the complete submergence of the mangroves of Sunderbans (Chowdhury and
Rob 2007). However, mangroves in low-island coastal regions where sedimentation
loads are high and erosion processes low can adapt better. The mangrove forests
along the arid coasts, in subsiding deltas, and on many islands have been predicted to
decline in area, structural complexity and in functionality along with their continuous
expansion towards poles (Alongi 2015).
Climate change has also impacted the coral reefs where the major observed effects
include increased mass coral bleaching, declining calcification rates, and a range of
other changes to subtle yet fundamentally important physiological and ecological
processes (Guldberg 2011). Coral reefs are found to be sensitive and are vulnerable to rise in the sea surface temperature (SST) against their optimal temperature
G. Kumar et al.
resulting in reformulation of species communities, differential changes in species and
in their extirpation or extinction (Root et al. 2003). Effects of climate change on the
natural system may be diverse and range from change in the timing of phenological
events of plants to changes in species abundance, distribution, timing of reproduction
in animals and plants, animal and bird migration patterns, and frequency and severity
of pest and disease outbreaks and shifts in habitat, etc. (Perrings 2010; Bharali and
Khan 2011). Apart from these effects, the risk of extinction for already vulnerable
species is likely to increase (Thomas et al. 2004) because many species require a
particular time period to adapt themselves against the changing climatic conditions
(Menéndez et al. 2006).
6 Impacts on Coastal Ecosystems
Human pressure on coastal ecosystems will increase significantly in the coming
decades due to population growth, economic development, installation of energy
generation infrastructure in coastal and marine ecosystems, transportation networks and urbanization (Yáñez-Arancibia 2013, 2015). The analysis and implementation of coastal adaptation toward climate-resilient and sustainable coasts have
progressed more significantly in developed countries than in developing countries
(Wong et al. 2014). The use of combined approaches to coastal adaptation instead
of a single strategy, such as the combination of ecology and engineering, allows
for better preparation for a highly uncertain and dynamic coastal environment
(Cheong et al. 2013).
The biggest climate change challenge faced by the coastal ecosystem is the rising
sea level (McLeod and Salm 2006). The ongoing phenomenon of climate change
has been predicted to pose a major threat to the Indian mangroves (Sandilyan 2015).
Impacts of climate change on mangroves of coastal areas used to be influenced
by various factors including sea level rise, changes in river flow due to changes in
snowmelt and precipitation pattern in the catchment, changes in local temperature
and in storm surges (Mckee et al. 2012). Sea level rise (SLR) of up to 1 m has been
projected for the period 1990–2100 with substantial regional variation (IPCC 2007)
and mangroves have been found to be vulnerable to SLR and even a 1 m rise would
result in the complete submergence of the mangroves of Sunderbans (Chowdhury and
Rob 2007). However, mangroves in low-island coastal regions where sedimentation
loads are high and erosion processes low can adapt better. The mangrove forests
along the arid coasts, in subsiding deltas, and on many islands have been predicted to
decline in area, structural complexity and in functionality along with their continuous
expansion towards poles (Alongi 2015).
Climate change has also impacted the coral reefs where the major observed effects
include increased mass coral bleaching, declining calcification rates, and a range of
other changes to subtle yet fundamentally important physiological and ecological
processes (Guldberg 2011). Coral reefs are found to be sensitive and are vulnerable to rise in the sea surface temperature (SST) against their optimal temperature