9.4.1 The Euler Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.4.2 Alternative Fundamental Functions and Fundamental
Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.4.3 The Maxwell Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.5 Determination of Thermodynamic Properties Based
on Measurable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.5.1 Basic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5.3 Why the Whole of Fresh Water Lakes Do Not
Freeze in Winter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.5.4 Convective Equilibrium of Atmospheric Air
at Hydrostatic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.6 Thermal Equilibrium and Mechanical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.6.1 Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.6.2 Mechanical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9.7 Gaseous Mixtures and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.7.1 Specific Gibbs Function of Mixture in Terms
of T-p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.8 Combustion Chemical Reactions and Enthalpy Balance . . . . . . . 260
9.8.1 Enthalpy of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.8.2 Fuel Heating Value (HV: HHV and LHV) . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.9 Chemical Equilibrium (Gaseous Reaction Product
Composition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10 A Theory of Heat as Prelude to Engineering Thermodynamics . . . 275
10.1 Engineering Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2 Heat Transfer Phenomena are Described by Governing
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.2.1 Governing Equation for Heat Transfer Problems . . . . . 278
10.3 Energy Analysis and Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.3.1 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume and Energy
Balance in Integral Form for a Control Volume . . . . . . 282
10.3.2 Exergy Balance in Integral Form for a Control
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4 Shaft Work Entails Mechanism for Its Fulfillment . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.5 Determination and Causal Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10.6 Engineering for Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
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9.4.2 Alternative Fundamental Functions and Fundamental
Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.4.3 The Maxwell Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.5 Determination of Thermodynamic Properties Based
on Measurable Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.5.1 Basic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.5.3 Why the Whole of Fresh Water Lakes Do Not
Freeze in Winter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.5.4 Convective Equilibrium of Atmospheric Air
at Hydrostatic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.6 Thermal Equilibrium and Mechanical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.6.1 Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.6.2 Mechanical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9.7 Gaseous Mixtures and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.7.1 Specific Gibbs Function of Mixture in Terms
of T-p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.8 Combustion Chemical Reactions and Enthalpy Balance . . . . . . . 260
9.8.1 Enthalpy of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.8.2 Fuel Heating Value (HV: HHV and LHV) . . . . . . . . . . 265
9.9 Chemical Equilibrium (Gaseous Reaction Product
Composition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10 A Theory of Heat as Prelude to Engineering Thermodynamics . . . 275
10.1 Engineering Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.2 Heat Transfer Phenomena are Described by Governing
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.2.1 Governing Equation for Heat Transfer Problems . . . . . 278
10.3 Energy Analysis and Exergy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10.3.1 Rate of Work Done by a Control Volume and Energy
Balance in Integral Form for a Control Volume . . . . . . 282
10.3.2 Exergy Balance in Integral Form for a Control
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.4 Shaft Work Entails Mechanism for Its Fulfillment . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.5 Determination and Causal Closure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
10.6 Engineering for Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
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