plastic lighter, stronger, and more heat resistant and also enhanced barrier properties
against oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, and volatiles. These characteristics are
extremely useful for food packaging applications, and montmorillonite use could
enhance the shelf life of food grains including cereals and boil-in-bag food (García
et al. 2010). Many advances have been made in the field of food packaging such as
the development of a pH sensor embedded in a radio frequency transmitter without
batteries, for in situ monitoring of deterioration processes of food grains (Fuertes
et al. 2016). With the current application and advancements, nanotechnology will
have a great impact on the storage, quality control, and food grain packaging and
decide future direction of wheat-based food industries.
5.9 Toxicity and Adverse Effects of Nanomaterials
The major plant physiological indices of the toxic effects of nanomaterials are the
germination percentage, root elongation, biomass, and leaf number (Ghosh et al.
2015; Lee et al. 2010). Nanoparticles can have substantial negative effects, such as
reduction in seed germination and suppression of plant elongation, and can even
cause plant death (Yang et al. 2017). In a recent study, the phytotoxicity and
genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles on germinating wheat seedlings were investigated. It was found that silver nanoparticles in the concentration of 10 mg L
À1
caused the alteration of all sorts of proteins related to cell metabolism (Vannini et al.
2014). The main factors influencing the effects of nanoparticles on plants are the
characteristics of the nanomaterials themselves. The characteristics include concentration, size, category, and stability of applied nanomaterial. Additionally, size and
species of plant seed, plant growth medium, plant growth stage, and nanoparticle
coating material also influenced the action of nanoparticles on plants. For instance,
the toxicity and bioavailability of copper nanoparticles were also observed in wheat
(Keltjens and Van Beusichem 1998). Wheat crop showed a greater accumulation of
copper nanoparticles in its roots due to the roots’ morphology, which may be due to
the release of cupric ion from copper nanoparticles. Recently, Watson et al. (2015)
reported that the phytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to young wheat seedlings
was dependent on the soil properties. Phytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles,
exhibited as the inhibition of root elongation of wheat, occurred when seedlings
were raised in a native acid soil. Inhibition of root elongation due to nanoparticles
was also observed when planted in sand (Dimkpa et al. 2013). However, extent of
solubility of zinc from the nanoparticles was a 100-fold less in the alkaline than the
acid soil; an increased uptake of zinc into the shoots from the nanoparticles occurred
in the calcareous alkaline soil (Watson et al. 2015). The sand amended with copper
oxide and zinc oxide in the dosage of 500 mg kg
À1 soil significantly reduced root
growth. Dissolved copper from copper oxide nanoparticles showed toxic behavior
toward wheat plant, but zinc did not influence the shoot growth. Copper oxide and
copper (I)-sulfur complexes were found to be accumulated in the shoot, while zinc
was detected as zinc phosphate. Oxidative stress in the nanoparticle-treated plants
184
P. L. Kashyap et al.
against oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, and volatiles. These characteristics are
extremely useful for food packaging applications, and montmorillonite use could
enhance the shelf life of food grains including cereals and boil-in-bag food (García
et al. 2010). Many advances have been made in the field of food packaging such as
the development of a pH sensor embedded in a radio frequency transmitter without
batteries, for in situ monitoring of deterioration processes of food grains (Fuertes
et al. 2016). With the current application and advancements, nanotechnology will
have a great impact on the storage, quality control, and food grain packaging and
decide future direction of wheat-based food industries.
5.9 Toxicity and Adverse Effects of Nanomaterials
The major plant physiological indices of the toxic effects of nanomaterials are the
germination percentage, root elongation, biomass, and leaf number (Ghosh et al.
2015; Lee et al. 2010). Nanoparticles can have substantial negative effects, such as
reduction in seed germination and suppression of plant elongation, and can even
cause plant death (Yang et al. 2017). In a recent study, the phytotoxicity and
genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles on germinating wheat seedlings were investigated. It was found that silver nanoparticles in the concentration of 10 mg L
À1
caused the alteration of all sorts of proteins related to cell metabolism (Vannini et al.
2014). The main factors influencing the effects of nanoparticles on plants are the
characteristics of the nanomaterials themselves. The characteristics include concentration, size, category, and stability of applied nanomaterial. Additionally, size and
species of plant seed, plant growth medium, plant growth stage, and nanoparticle
coating material also influenced the action of nanoparticles on plants. For instance,
the toxicity and bioavailability of copper nanoparticles were also observed in wheat
(Keltjens and Van Beusichem 1998). Wheat crop showed a greater accumulation of
copper nanoparticles in its roots due to the roots’ morphology, which may be due to
the release of cupric ion from copper nanoparticles. Recently, Watson et al. (2015)
reported that the phytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles to young wheat seedlings
was dependent on the soil properties. Phytotoxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles,
exhibited as the inhibition of root elongation of wheat, occurred when seedlings
were raised in a native acid soil. Inhibition of root elongation due to nanoparticles
was also observed when planted in sand (Dimkpa et al. 2013). However, extent of
solubility of zinc from the nanoparticles was a 100-fold less in the alkaline than the
acid soil; an increased uptake of zinc into the shoots from the nanoparticles occurred
in the calcareous alkaline soil (Watson et al. 2015). The sand amended with copper
oxide and zinc oxide in the dosage of 500 mg kg
À1 soil significantly reduced root
growth. Dissolved copper from copper oxide nanoparticles showed toxic behavior
toward wheat plant, but zinc did not influence the shoot growth. Copper oxide and
copper (I)-sulfur complexes were found to be accumulated in the shoot, while zinc
was detected as zinc phosphate. Oxidative stress in the nanoparticle-treated plants
184
P. L. Kashyap et al.