43
croplands into drylands less suited to crops, mining exploration, fracking, infrastructure for generation of renewable energy (wind and photovoltaic farms, largescale dams), urbanization, and expansion of state-protected areas. As a result, what
usable rangelands remain are considerably more arid and less productive than in the
past, but are expected to support the same or sometimes higher densities of livestock
with likely implications on the functional integrity and resilience of rangelands as
life-support systems. But the lack of consensus on the definition of “land degradation” and “desertification” continues to challenge estimates of this important parameter (Cherlet et al. 2018).
There are many myths and misunderstandings of pastoralism dating back to
colonial times, leading to deeply entrenched prejudices against them (Davis 2016).
Most developing country government policies in the past decades have promoted
the industrialization of agriculture. In the livestock sector, this usually meant giving
incentives, subsidies, and other support to the development of large-scale commercial feedlots (Niamir-Fuller 2016). For instance, it is estimated that in 2012
Argentina, where grass-feed beef production has dominated for decades, 50% of
cattle production terminated in feedlot-type systems (Deblitz 2012). Smallholder
pastoralism was seen as outmoded and inefficient. Their lands were converted by
fiat to large-scale irrigation systems, national parks and reserves, or to rainfed agriculture as population of farmers increased. For example, the establishment of the
Park du W in Niger led to displacement, poverty, conflict, and radicalization among
pastoralists (Ben Hounet et al. 2016). Poverty among pastoralists also led them to
sedentarize. For example, in Kenya, pastoral areas have a poverty index twice the
national average and in Asia infant mortality rates in drylands are 50% above the
mean (McGahey et al. 2014). Between 1900 and 1990 the average livestock holding
per household in Karamoja (Uganda) decreased from 100 to 28 (Niamir-Fuller
1999). Poverty is driving millions of pastoralists out of their land and out of the
livestock sector, leaving many destitute, dependent on food aid, or joining the growing tide of international migrants. An estimated 30% of pastoralists have migrated
to cities and towns in Tanzania, and transhumance has almost completely disappeared in Tunisia (Niamir-Fuller and Turner 1999).
Privatization of rangelands, the blocking of traditional livestock migration routes,
and breakdown of common property systems of natural resources management have
been linked to increased land degradation (Swallow and Bromley 1991). Many countries do not adequately protect pastoral land tenure, and chronically underinvest in
these areas. What has been described as “benign neglect” (Swift 1993) led to an
unbalanced development scenario, where farmers were favored over pastoralists.
Recently however, there is growing recognition of the value of healthy rangelands
and sustainable pastoralism and their interdependency. Pastoralism has been shown
to produce from two to ten times more output per unit area than some of the alternative land uses that have been proposed as a replacement (McGahey et al. 2014).
Inherent variability of productivity of rangelands means that these areas have a cost–
benefit ratio that does not favor exclusionary, privatized investments (Dyson- Hudson
and Smith 1978). Variability is expected to increase in an unprecedented fashion due
to the high vulnerability of drylands to predicted climate change (Huang et al. 2017).
3 Pastoralism and Achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development…
croplands into drylands less suited to crops, mining exploration, fracking, infrastructure for generation of renewable energy (wind and photovoltaic farms, largescale dams), urbanization, and expansion of state-protected areas. As a result, what
usable rangelands remain are considerably more arid and less productive than in the
past, but are expected to support the same or sometimes higher densities of livestock
with likely implications on the functional integrity and resilience of rangelands as
life-support systems. But the lack of consensus on the definition of “land degradation” and “desertification” continues to challenge estimates of this important parameter (Cherlet et al. 2018).
There are many myths and misunderstandings of pastoralism dating back to
colonial times, leading to deeply entrenched prejudices against them (Davis 2016).
Most developing country government policies in the past decades have promoted
the industrialization of agriculture. In the livestock sector, this usually meant giving
incentives, subsidies, and other support to the development of large-scale commercial feedlots (Niamir-Fuller 2016). For instance, it is estimated that in 2012
Argentina, where grass-feed beef production has dominated for decades, 50% of
cattle production terminated in feedlot-type systems (Deblitz 2012). Smallholder
pastoralism was seen as outmoded and inefficient. Their lands were converted by
fiat to large-scale irrigation systems, national parks and reserves, or to rainfed agriculture as population of farmers increased. For example, the establishment of the
Park du W in Niger led to displacement, poverty, conflict, and radicalization among
pastoralists (Ben Hounet et al. 2016). Poverty among pastoralists also led them to
sedentarize. For example, in Kenya, pastoral areas have a poverty index twice the
national average and in Asia infant mortality rates in drylands are 50% above the
mean (McGahey et al. 2014). Between 1900 and 1990 the average livestock holding
per household in Karamoja (Uganda) decreased from 100 to 28 (Niamir-Fuller
1999). Poverty is driving millions of pastoralists out of their land and out of the
livestock sector, leaving many destitute, dependent on food aid, or joining the growing tide of international migrants. An estimated 30% of pastoralists have migrated
to cities and towns in Tanzania, and transhumance has almost completely disappeared in Tunisia (Niamir-Fuller and Turner 1999).
Privatization of rangelands, the blocking of traditional livestock migration routes,
and breakdown of common property systems of natural resources management have
been linked to increased land degradation (Swallow and Bromley 1991). Many countries do not adequately protect pastoral land tenure, and chronically underinvest in
these areas. What has been described as “benign neglect” (Swift 1993) led to an
unbalanced development scenario, where farmers were favored over pastoralists.
Recently however, there is growing recognition of the value of healthy rangelands
and sustainable pastoralism and their interdependency. Pastoralism has been shown
to produce from two to ten times more output per unit area than some of the alternative land uses that have been proposed as a replacement (McGahey et al. 2014).
Inherent variability of productivity of rangelands means that these areas have a cost–
benefit ratio that does not favor exclusionary, privatized investments (Dyson- Hudson
and Smith 1978). Variability is expected to increase in an unprecedented fashion due
to the high vulnerability of drylands to predicted climate change (Huang et al. 2017).
3 Pastoralism and Achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development…