73
ment, row spacing, planting date and depth, and population density (Kucharik and
Ramankutty 2005; Andresen et al. 2002; Duvick and Cassman 1999; Duvick 1992,
1977). Among these factors, weather and climate are prominent drivers of agricultural production systems. It has been shown that recent trends in change of climate
variables may be responsible for substantially affecting crop yield trends despite
advances in technology and other fronts (IPCC 2013).
This study also investigated effects of climate variability on livelihood strategies
of the men and women farmers in the study area. The main livelihood strategies
discussed by the respondents in the zone in both production systems were crop and
livestock production. Maize, groundnuts, cassava, and rice were the major crops
produced while cows, bullocks, goats, pigs (Sus domesticus), and chickens were the
main livestock reared. The crops and livestock are presented according to their order
of importance to their livelihoods, as agreed upon by the respondents.
Effects of Climate Variability on Crop Production Sequence and Yields
In sub-Saharan Africa, sequential cropping in rain-fed areas has been one of the
ways of increasing crop yields in addition to intercropping. This involves cultivation
of two or more crops on the same field after each other or with overlapping growing
periods (relay cropping) (Francis 1986). Prior to in-depth discussions, respondents
were asked how their current crop production practices and challenges compare to
the practices they had over 20 years before. The majority of both female and male
respondents observed that due to the current ECV, it has become quite risky to
depend on their cropping calendars as a guide in determining when to prepare their
land parcels for crop and livestock production. They indicated that the current dry
conditions have been prolonged and the rains are characterized by floods and hailstorms that prolong planting time and create favorable conditions for pest and disease infestations. Comparing the situation with earlier times, that is, about 25 years
ago, respondents reported that the rains used to begin as early as February, which
prompted early land preparation and planting. Crops would be harvested prior to
peak pest infestation, hence higher yields. They indicated that in the present times,
the rains delay as far as the month of March and beyond, which affects crop planting
schedules. This delays planting time and reduces the growing season. Respondents
cited past instances when farmers used to plant banana (Musa acuminata), coffee
(Coffea arabica), and rice in April and maize, groundnuts, and cassava in March,
and yet currently they cannot decide on what crops to rotate, given the variations in
rainfall. This confirms that ECV events have indeed distorted their crop rotational
sequence to the extent that they now find it very difficult to decide on what crops to
rotate, if rotation happens at all. Additionally, they have to plant pest-, disease-, and
drought-resistant crop varieties in order to overcome ECV. Findings here suggest
that climate variability has resulted in reduced crop rotation and growing season and
late planting with implications on soil fertility and pest and disease infestation.
Waha et al. (2013) observed that sequential cropping in rain-fed systems of the large
parts of sub-Saharan Africa is constrained by the length of growing period, high
Gendered Adaptation and Coping Mechanisms to Climate Variability in Eastern…
ment, row spacing, planting date and depth, and population density (Kucharik and
Ramankutty 2005; Andresen et al. 2002; Duvick and Cassman 1999; Duvick 1992,
1977). Among these factors, weather and climate are prominent drivers of agricultural production systems. It has been shown that recent trends in change of climate
variables may be responsible for substantially affecting crop yield trends despite
advances in technology and other fronts (IPCC 2013).
This study also investigated effects of climate variability on livelihood strategies
of the men and women farmers in the study area. The main livelihood strategies
discussed by the respondents in the zone in both production systems were crop and
livestock production. Maize, groundnuts, cassava, and rice were the major crops
produced while cows, bullocks, goats, pigs (Sus domesticus), and chickens were the
main livestock reared. The crops and livestock are presented according to their order
of importance to their livelihoods, as agreed upon by the respondents.
Effects of Climate Variability on Crop Production Sequence and Yields
In sub-Saharan Africa, sequential cropping in rain-fed areas has been one of the
ways of increasing crop yields in addition to intercropping. This involves cultivation
of two or more crops on the same field after each other or with overlapping growing
periods (relay cropping) (Francis 1986). Prior to in-depth discussions, respondents
were asked how their current crop production practices and challenges compare to
the practices they had over 20 years before. The majority of both female and male
respondents observed that due to the current ECV, it has become quite risky to
depend on their cropping calendars as a guide in determining when to prepare their
land parcels for crop and livestock production. They indicated that the current dry
conditions have been prolonged and the rains are characterized by floods and hailstorms that prolong planting time and create favorable conditions for pest and disease infestations. Comparing the situation with earlier times, that is, about 25 years
ago, respondents reported that the rains used to begin as early as February, which
prompted early land preparation and planting. Crops would be harvested prior to
peak pest infestation, hence higher yields. They indicated that in the present times,
the rains delay as far as the month of March and beyond, which affects crop planting
schedules. This delays planting time and reduces the growing season. Respondents
cited past instances when farmers used to plant banana (Musa acuminata), coffee
(Coffea arabica), and rice in April and maize, groundnuts, and cassava in March,
and yet currently they cannot decide on what crops to rotate, given the variations in
rainfall. This confirms that ECV events have indeed distorted their crop rotational
sequence to the extent that they now find it very difficult to decide on what crops to
rotate, if rotation happens at all. Additionally, they have to plant pest-, disease-, and
drought-resistant crop varieties in order to overcome ECV. Findings here suggest
that climate variability has resulted in reduced crop rotation and growing season and
late planting with implications on soil fertility and pest and disease infestation.
Waha et al. (2013) observed that sequential cropping in rain-fed systems of the large
parts of sub-Saharan Africa is constrained by the length of growing period, high
Gendered Adaptation and Coping Mechanisms to Climate Variability in Eastern…