509
1.2 Gender Differences in Adoption and Adaptive Capacities
to Climate Change Impacts
In Malawi, women contribute 70% of the country’s labour force and produce 70% of
the household food. Malawian women also perform between 50% and 70% of all
agricultural tasks (World Bank 2014; MGDS 111 2017–2022; GOM 2013). However,
women continue to have poor access to and control over the means of agricultural
production, including agricultural inputs, improved technologies, extension services,
credit and land (Goh 2012; Banda et al. 2011), and the adoption of CSA technologies
is still low, especially among female farmers. Most female smallholder farmers have
restricted access to and ownership of agricultural inputs in sub-Saharan Africa
(Peterman et al. 2014). This affects agricultural production and productivity. Findings
from Malawi revealed that male-managed plots produce on average 25% more per
hectare than female-managed plots (World Bank 2014). Inadequate capacity is also
caused by small land holding size, low access to extension services, education, information and low participation in local institutions (Chirwa 2005; Williams 2008;
Mlamba 2010; Kakota et al. 2013, Kakota et al. 2017). Triple roles played by women
as well as lack of enabling environment are the other factors influencing their ability
to cope with climate change and to enhance resilience and adaptive capacity.
Culturally assigned roles within the household expose them to more challenges and
barriers when it comes to access and control of natural, financial and social resources
(Kakota et al. 2013; Lipper et al. 2014; Murray et al. 2016). Women and men therefore have different capabilities to implement adaptation strategies that ensure sustainable household food security. Understanding of the local context is necessary to
improve women’s adaptive capacity and adoption of CSA technologies (Murray
et al. 2016). A study by Asfaw et al. (2017) showed that land tenure insecurity is one
of the causes that exacerbates women smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to weather
shocks in patrilineal districts of Malawi. The same study also indicates that in matrilineal districts where women have more property rights, the impact of weather shocks
on women is significantly lower (Asfaw et al. 2017). The higher labour demand in
using agricultural technologies can also be a constraint for women in adopting CSA
technologies. The use of zero or minimum tillage in conservation agriculture (CA),
for instance, can increase weeds if the appropriate amount of herbicides are not used,
thereby increasing women’s labour load. Policy and institutional gaps also influence
female farmers’ capability to adapt to climate change.
It is known that women and men are not only victims of climate change, but also
effective agents of change in relation to both mitigation and adaptation, and women
are key agents of climate change adaptation and mitigation (WEDO 2007). However,
there are few studies in Malawi on gender differentiation in the level of adaptive
capacity and adoption of agricultural technologies. To fill the gap, this study was
conducted to analyse gender and socio-economic issues affecting adoption of technologies and level of adaptive capacity. The study further investigates the current
user status of CSA technologies by gender and gendered constraints that affect
adoption of technologies by women and men farmers in three districts of Malawi
where CSA technologies are promoted.
Gender Differentiation in the Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies…
1.2 Gender Differences in Adoption and Adaptive Capacities
to Climate Change Impacts
In Malawi, women contribute 70% of the country’s labour force and produce 70% of
the household food. Malawian women also perform between 50% and 70% of all
agricultural tasks (World Bank 2014; MGDS 111 2017–2022; GOM 2013). However,
women continue to have poor access to and control over the means of agricultural
production, including agricultural inputs, improved technologies, extension services,
credit and land (Goh 2012; Banda et al. 2011), and the adoption of CSA technologies
is still low, especially among female farmers. Most female smallholder farmers have
restricted access to and ownership of agricultural inputs in sub-Saharan Africa
(Peterman et al. 2014). This affects agricultural production and productivity. Findings
from Malawi revealed that male-managed plots produce on average 25% more per
hectare than female-managed plots (World Bank 2014). Inadequate capacity is also
caused by small land holding size, low access to extension services, education, information and low participation in local institutions (Chirwa 2005; Williams 2008;
Mlamba 2010; Kakota et al. 2013, Kakota et al. 2017). Triple roles played by women
as well as lack of enabling environment are the other factors influencing their ability
to cope with climate change and to enhance resilience and adaptive capacity.
Culturally assigned roles within the household expose them to more challenges and
barriers when it comes to access and control of natural, financial and social resources
(Kakota et al. 2013; Lipper et al. 2014; Murray et al. 2016). Women and men therefore have different capabilities to implement adaptation strategies that ensure sustainable household food security. Understanding of the local context is necessary to
improve women’s adaptive capacity and adoption of CSA technologies (Murray
et al. 2016). A study by Asfaw et al. (2017) showed that land tenure insecurity is one
of the causes that exacerbates women smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to weather
shocks in patrilineal districts of Malawi. The same study also indicates that in matrilineal districts where women have more property rights, the impact of weather shocks
on women is significantly lower (Asfaw et al. 2017). The higher labour demand in
using agricultural technologies can also be a constraint for women in adopting CSA
technologies. The use of zero or minimum tillage in conservation agriculture (CA),
for instance, can increase weeds if the appropriate amount of herbicides are not used,
thereby increasing women’s labour load. Policy and institutional gaps also influence
female farmers’ capability to adapt to climate change.
It is known that women and men are not only victims of climate change, but also
effective agents of change in relation to both mitigation and adaptation, and women
are key agents of climate change adaptation and mitigation (WEDO 2007). However,
there are few studies in Malawi on gender differentiation in the level of adaptive
capacity and adoption of agricultural technologies. To fill the gap, this study was
conducted to analyse gender and socio-economic issues affecting adoption of technologies and level of adaptive capacity. The study further investigates the current
user status of CSA technologies by gender and gendered constraints that affect
adoption of technologies by women and men farmers in three districts of Malawi
where CSA technologies are promoted.
Gender Differentiation in the Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies…