360
to a transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture, given that the functioning markets and infrastructure are in place. Higher incomes from sales of agricultural products may lead to more investments in on-farm livelihood assets and other
sectors beside agriculture. An increasing number of studies demonstrate the potential of adopted CSA and sustainable agricultural practices for improving food security, adapting to climate change, and/or mitigating GHG emissions. Practices such
as crop improvements, agroforestry and soil conservation, conservation agriculture
(CA), integrated soil fertility management (ISFM), integrated pest management
(IPM), horticulture, livestock and fodder crops, aquaculture, and novel policies and
partnerships are some of the emerging climate-smart options for increased farm
productivity, rural livelihoods, and adaptive capacity of farmers and production systems in African countries (Pretty et al. 2011).
Enabling policies are crucial for the adoption of CSA practices by smallholder
farmers in Africa Policy decisions have the potential to impact smallholder farmers, and policy instruments can be used to subsidize agriculture and enable access to
essential inputs, which in turn can impact food production, food security, and livelihoods (Pretty 2008). Policies to enable adoption of CSA should focus on equitable
mechanisms for transferring resources and should not create barriers to adaptations
to the new systems and transformations towards more ethical practices. Indeed, it
may not be necessary to create new policies but to prudently communicate the basic
principles and targets/benefits of CSA. A strong framework and linkages between all
players must be in place to ensure guidance of local CSA initiatives (Ampaire et al.
2015). Policy interventions to enable the adoption of CSA should (i) provide access
to information, (ii) take into account the fact that smallholder farmers have limited
assets and capacity for risk-taking, and (iii) provide interventions that can assist risk
management and productivity without increasing inappropriate land-use and environmental degradation. Furthermore, if policies are to be successful in enabling the
adoption of CSA, the policy formulation process, which in Africa is to a large extent
unidirectional and top-down, must expand to include other organizations including
cooperative movements, the private sector, and the opinions of smallholder farmers
themselves (Ampaire et al. 2015). In addition, the role of women in African agriculture must not be ignored, and policy formation should address gender imbalances,
which could help to decrease poverty and food insecurity. One should also study and
reflect on the competence of scientists and farmers and the policymakers’ perceptions and attitudes regarding the incorporation of CSA into various contexts based
on the need for fulfilment not just achievement of crop yield.
More research at the national, regional, and local levels is required in many
cases, given the context-specific nature of the CSA approach and the diversity of
farming systems, political and socioeconomic conditions, and agroecological zones
in Africa. The current evidence base is inadequate to support effective decisionmaking at the national and local levels, which impedes the ability of decision makers
to identify what is climate smart in the given biophysical and socioeconomic context (Lipper et al. 2014). The barriers to adaptation in changing climatic conditions
and the means to overcome them are largely unknown. The barrier may be at the
B. K. Sitaula et al.
to a transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture, given that the functioning markets and infrastructure are in place. Higher incomes from sales of agricultural products may lead to more investments in on-farm livelihood assets and other
sectors beside agriculture. An increasing number of studies demonstrate the potential of adopted CSA and sustainable agricultural practices for improving food security, adapting to climate change, and/or mitigating GHG emissions. Practices such
as crop improvements, agroforestry and soil conservation, conservation agriculture
(CA), integrated soil fertility management (ISFM), integrated pest management
(IPM), horticulture, livestock and fodder crops, aquaculture, and novel policies and
partnerships are some of the emerging climate-smart options for increased farm
productivity, rural livelihoods, and adaptive capacity of farmers and production systems in African countries (Pretty et al. 2011).
Enabling policies are crucial for the adoption of CSA practices by smallholder
farmers in Africa Policy decisions have the potential to impact smallholder farmers, and policy instruments can be used to subsidize agriculture and enable access to
essential inputs, which in turn can impact food production, food security, and livelihoods (Pretty 2008). Policies to enable adoption of CSA should focus on equitable
mechanisms for transferring resources and should not create barriers to adaptations
to the new systems and transformations towards more ethical practices. Indeed, it
may not be necessary to create new policies but to prudently communicate the basic
principles and targets/benefits of CSA. A strong framework and linkages between all
players must be in place to ensure guidance of local CSA initiatives (Ampaire et al.
2015). Policy interventions to enable the adoption of CSA should (i) provide access
to information, (ii) take into account the fact that smallholder farmers have limited
assets and capacity for risk-taking, and (iii) provide interventions that can assist risk
management and productivity without increasing inappropriate land-use and environmental degradation. Furthermore, if policies are to be successful in enabling the
adoption of CSA, the policy formulation process, which in Africa is to a large extent
unidirectional and top-down, must expand to include other organizations including
cooperative movements, the private sector, and the opinions of smallholder farmers
themselves (Ampaire et al. 2015). In addition, the role of women in African agriculture must not be ignored, and policy formation should address gender imbalances,
which could help to decrease poverty and food insecurity. One should also study and
reflect on the competence of scientists and farmers and the policymakers’ perceptions and attitudes regarding the incorporation of CSA into various contexts based
on the need for fulfilment not just achievement of crop yield.
More research at the national, regional, and local levels is required in many
cases, given the context-specific nature of the CSA approach and the diversity of
farming systems, political and socioeconomic conditions, and agroecological zones
in Africa. The current evidence base is inadequate to support effective decisionmaking at the national and local levels, which impedes the ability of decision makers
to identify what is climate smart in the given biophysical and socioeconomic context (Lipper et al. 2014). The barriers to adaptation in changing climatic conditions
and the means to overcome them are largely unknown. The barrier may be at the
B. K. Sitaula et al.