222
Reduced availability of fodder in the communal grazing lands results in a number of animals that can be supported per management unit or area of grazing land
(carrying capacity), thereby affecting the grazing system (McKeon et al. 2009),
which in turn affects feed intake of animals. With reduction and changes in feed
intake, which impinge on nutritional needs of cattle, changes in ration formulation
or feeding strategies and approaches may be required to meet the nutrient requirements of cattle. This requires interventions that will enhance the capacity of farmers
to properly manage the available feed resources, including the need to adopt fodder
preservation in the form of either hay or silage.
Water is a life’s necessity for both humans and livestock. The results show that
climate change and weather variability also negatively affect water supplies. This is
probably due to erratic rains and droughts where the water table goes down, and the
rivers, water wells and boreholes get dry. Cattle are therefore moved around in
search of water, further increasing their water requirements. Thornton and Herrero
(2014) reported that increases in temperature by 20° from 10 to 30 °C can increase
water intake by 67% from 3–5 kg per kilogramme dry matter in Bos indicus cattle.
Where cattle walk for long distances in search of fodder or water further implies that
more energy is expended in the process.
5.4 Disease Incidences
There are many factors that contribute to incidences of livestock diseases, including
climate change. In this study, respondents indicated that they have observed
increased incidences of cattle diseases over the past years, which could be attributed
to climate change or weather variability. However, this is merely based on anecdotal
evidence. Bett et al. (2017) indicated that there is limited knowledge on the key
processes involved in disease causation. This is mainly because of the lack of reliable long-term climate and disease data and information on other mechanisms
affecting disease transmission dynamics, such as herd immunity. Aydinalp and
Cresser (2008) argued that this could be due to the fact that most livestock diseases,
including nematode infestations, are transmitted by vectors whose developmental
stages are influenced by climatic conditions such as increased temperatures.
In addition, due to lack of fodder in traditional communal grazing areas, animals
are moved from one area to another in search of feed and in the process may come
into contact with diseased animals. Grace et al. (2015) reported that human behaviour can affect the way animals are raised. This may be due to vulnerability of animals to pathogenic organisms or exposure to environments with animal health risks
to which they have not been previously exposed (Thornton 2010). Climate change–
induced flooding may exacerbate diseases spread through water (ibid.). Bett et al.
(2017) also reported that climate change in the form of increased air temperatures
could be associated with epidemiology of infectious diseases and an increase in
exposure to infectious pathogens such as arthropod vectors like Culicoides imicola,
which transmits the bluetongue virus. Outbreaks of diseases such as Rift Valley
J. Nanganga and A. C. L. Safalaoh
Reduced availability of fodder in the communal grazing lands results in a number of animals that can be supported per management unit or area of grazing land
(carrying capacity), thereby affecting the grazing system (McKeon et al. 2009),
which in turn affects feed intake of animals. With reduction and changes in feed
intake, which impinge on nutritional needs of cattle, changes in ration formulation
or feeding strategies and approaches may be required to meet the nutrient requirements of cattle. This requires interventions that will enhance the capacity of farmers
to properly manage the available feed resources, including the need to adopt fodder
preservation in the form of either hay or silage.
Water is a life’s necessity for both humans and livestock. The results show that
climate change and weather variability also negatively affect water supplies. This is
probably due to erratic rains and droughts where the water table goes down, and the
rivers, water wells and boreholes get dry. Cattle are therefore moved around in
search of water, further increasing their water requirements. Thornton and Herrero
(2014) reported that increases in temperature by 20° from 10 to 30 °C can increase
water intake by 67% from 3–5 kg per kilogramme dry matter in Bos indicus cattle.
Where cattle walk for long distances in search of fodder or water further implies that
more energy is expended in the process.
5.4 Disease Incidences
There are many factors that contribute to incidences of livestock diseases, including
climate change. In this study, respondents indicated that they have observed
increased incidences of cattle diseases over the past years, which could be attributed
to climate change or weather variability. However, this is merely based on anecdotal
evidence. Bett et al. (2017) indicated that there is limited knowledge on the key
processes involved in disease causation. This is mainly because of the lack of reliable long-term climate and disease data and information on other mechanisms
affecting disease transmission dynamics, such as herd immunity. Aydinalp and
Cresser (2008) argued that this could be due to the fact that most livestock diseases,
including nematode infestations, are transmitted by vectors whose developmental
stages are influenced by climatic conditions such as increased temperatures.
In addition, due to lack of fodder in traditional communal grazing areas, animals
are moved from one area to another in search of feed and in the process may come
into contact with diseased animals. Grace et al. (2015) reported that human behaviour can affect the way animals are raised. This may be due to vulnerability of animals to pathogenic organisms or exposure to environments with animal health risks
to which they have not been previously exposed (Thornton 2010). Climate change–
induced flooding may exacerbate diseases spread through water (ibid.). Bett et al.
(2017) also reported that climate change in the form of increased air temperatures
could be associated with epidemiology of infectious diseases and an increase in
exposure to infectious pathogens such as arthropod vectors like Culicoides imicola,
which transmits the bluetongue virus. Outbreaks of diseases such as Rift Valley
J. Nanganga and A. C. L. Safalaoh