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L. Liu and L. Gao
With respect to the HESD initiatives in China, the Ministry of Education (MOE)
works as the direct regulator. It takes charge of overall planning, coordination and
management of all educational systems in mainland China. By 2015, China had more
than 2560 universities and colleges, hosting 28.2 million students. The anticipated
increase in enrollment results in increasing pressure on the labor market. A recent
estimate showed that approximately 8.2 million college students would graduate in
2018 (Xinhua News Agency 2017).
In China, public universities are often tiered into the central and local level. At
central-level, 75 universities are directly affiliated with the Ministry of Education.
These universities are well-funded and regarded as top-tier universities, whereas
local-level universities are under the control of provincial governments, numerous in
number but smaller in scale, less prestigious and less funded. Private and independent HEIs do not receive funding from the government and face severe challenges
in terms of policy inconsistencies. There are some foreign-funded universities in
China, however, in-depth cooperation is reportedly frustrated by state intervention
on academic freedom and independence (Onsman and Cameron 2014; Huang 2018).
The Chinese government adopts and leans on a differentiated supporting strategy
to enhance higher education competence and build world-class universities. Among
all initiatives, Project 211
1 and Project 985
2 are the most popular. Nevertheless, these
two projects have been widely criticized as aggravating centralization and imbalance
of educational funding among universities and local development (e.g., Serger et al.
2015). Late in 2017, the Double First-Class University Plan was issued by the MOE,
aiming to create world-class universities and disciplines by the end of 2050. The new
plan replaces Project 211 and Project 985 and spreads funding to more universities
and disciplines.
3
China’s Agenda 21 initiated the tasks of strengthening environmental education in
primary and secondary schools, developing curricula and materials for universities,
as well as introducing post-graduate courses on sustainable development. In 2010,
the MOE publicized the National Outline for Medium- and Long-term Education
Reform and Development (2010–2020), claiming that due attention shall be paid to
sustainable development (MOE 2010). To date various efforts have been made to
reorient teaching and research at Chinese universities, bringing sustainability practices to campus. According to Niu et al. (2010), approximately 50% of universities in
China have launched general courses linked to sustainable development, and almost
all universities have begun to orient their curricula in line with ESD.
1 Project 211 is a national university project initiated in 1995 by the Ministry of Education in China,
with the intent of raising the research standards of high-level universities and cultivating strategies
for socio-economic development. The project includes 112 HEIs up to the mid-2000s.
2 Project 985 was launched in May 1985 to promote the development and reputation of the Chinese
higher education system. Till Project 985 closed its door for entry in 2011, it includes 39 universities
from the list of Project 211 universities.
3 The full sponsored university and discipline list of the Double First-Class Plan was published in
September 2017, including 42 first class universities (36 Type A schools and 6 Type B schools) and
465 first class disciplines (spread among 140 schools including the first-class universities).
L. Liu and L. Gao
With respect to the HESD initiatives in China, the Ministry of Education (MOE)
works as the direct regulator. It takes charge of overall planning, coordination and
management of all educational systems in mainland China. By 2015, China had more
than 2560 universities and colleges, hosting 28.2 million students. The anticipated
increase in enrollment results in increasing pressure on the labor market. A recent
estimate showed that approximately 8.2 million college students would graduate in
2018 (Xinhua News Agency 2017).
In China, public universities are often tiered into the central and local level. At
central-level, 75 universities are directly affiliated with the Ministry of Education.
These universities are well-funded and regarded as top-tier universities, whereas
local-level universities are under the control of provincial governments, numerous in
number but smaller in scale, less prestigious and less funded. Private and independent HEIs do not receive funding from the government and face severe challenges
in terms of policy inconsistencies. There are some foreign-funded universities in
China, however, in-depth cooperation is reportedly frustrated by state intervention
on academic freedom and independence (Onsman and Cameron 2014; Huang 2018).
The Chinese government adopts and leans on a differentiated supporting strategy
to enhance higher education competence and build world-class universities. Among
all initiatives, Project 211
1 and Project 985
2 are the most popular. Nevertheless, these
two projects have been widely criticized as aggravating centralization and imbalance
of educational funding among universities and local development (e.g., Serger et al.
2015). Late in 2017, the Double First-Class University Plan was issued by the MOE,
aiming to create world-class universities and disciplines by the end of 2050. The new
plan replaces Project 211 and Project 985 and spreads funding to more universities
and disciplines.
3
China’s Agenda 21 initiated the tasks of strengthening environmental education in
primary and secondary schools, developing curricula and materials for universities,
as well as introducing post-graduate courses on sustainable development. In 2010,
the MOE publicized the National Outline for Medium- and Long-term Education
Reform and Development (2010–2020), claiming that due attention shall be paid to
sustainable development (MOE 2010). To date various efforts have been made to
reorient teaching and research at Chinese universities, bringing sustainability practices to campus. According to Niu et al. (2010), approximately 50% of universities in
China have launched general courses linked to sustainable development, and almost
all universities have begun to orient their curricula in line with ESD.
1 Project 211 is a national university project initiated in 1995 by the Ministry of Education in China,
with the intent of raising the research standards of high-level universities and cultivating strategies
for socio-economic development. The project includes 112 HEIs up to the mid-2000s.
2 Project 985 was launched in May 1985 to promote the development and reputation of the Chinese
higher education system. Till Project 985 closed its door for entry in 2011, it includes 39 universities
from the list of Project 211 universities.
3 The full sponsored university and discipline list of the Double First-Class Plan was published in
September 2017, including 42 first class universities (36 Type A schools and 6 Type B schools) and
465 first class disciplines (spread among 140 schools including the first-class universities).