66
J. Maruani
Even in the physical sciences, the Newtonian concept of interaction at a distance,
as well as Mach’s idea of a mass being determined by all masses in the Universe,
had an odd holistic flavour. In fact, in classical mechanics as in classical optics one
can use, to compute the trajectory of a matter particle or a light ray, either a deterministic, derivative formulation (Hamilton’s equations for position and momentum, Descartes’ laws of reflection and refraction), or a finalistic, integral approach
(Maupertuis’ principle of least action integral, Fermat’s principle of stationary optical path). The latter formulations are now well understood as resulting from interferences between waves associated with matter particles or light rays, constructive
along the effective, real trajectory and destructive along other, virtual paths [1, 55].
In the biological sciences, only deterministic approaches to microevolution (as
those involving Darwinian mechanisms of natural and sexual selection) have indeed
been rationalized. There is no real understanding of the macroevolution process in
which we are embedded (and not just external observers, as in the physical sciences).
However, the existence of selected trajectories for phylum evolution cannot be discarded. In a way, chance and necessity play a role similar in the Darwinian theory
of biological evolution and in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. In the former, the ecosystem acts as an ‘observer’ reducing the species ‘wave
packet’ (population variety) generated by ‘subquantum’ (genotype) fluctuations. If
biological phenomena are indeed, as Schrödinger had foreseen it [56], a manifestation of quantum laws at the macroscopic level, then constructive and destructive
interferences may operate also among living systems, and hence within social structures [57]. There remains a Maupertuis or Fermat-like principle to be built on a
quantification model for biological evolution.
Schrödinger’s argumentation on the quantum nature of living systems, together
with Darwin’s theory of biological evolution, reminds of Epicure’s conjecture that
matter is made up of atoms driven by chance and necessity. Schrödinger’s idea was
expressed before the discovery of DNA (which actually it inspired). But, still earlier,
life quantization was implicit in Mendel’s laws of heredity and Morgan’s theory of
genes. This may be seen as the latest step in a fractal progress of complexity. Among
the so-called elementary particles, some of the most stable (electrons and nucleons)
build up a few scores of atoms, which constitute a kind of alphabet making up usual
matter. Some of the molecules (words) built up with a few light atoms constitute
a higher-order alphabet making up molecules of life (sentences). These assemble
into cells (paragraphs), tissues (chapters), organisms (books), species (bookseries),
and eventually ecosystems (libraries).
This evolving auto-organization process [58] follows four main rules [59]. 1. At
every level of complexity, the forces that have driven the lower-level structures become less relevant, and new forces take over. 2. The higher the level of complexity, the weaker the driving force: nucleons are held together by the strong nuclear
force; atoms and molecules by the weaker, electromagnetic force; and living organisms communicate by exchanging energy-free signals (languages). 3. At every level
of complexity, a new variety of structures emerge, while only a few of those that
emerged at the lower level are retained (natural selection). 4. Subsidiary to this rule,
at critical levels of complexity there is a dissymmetry in the entities retained: matter
J. Maruani
Even in the physical sciences, the Newtonian concept of interaction at a distance,
as well as Mach’s idea of a mass being determined by all masses in the Universe,
had an odd holistic flavour. In fact, in classical mechanics as in classical optics one
can use, to compute the trajectory of a matter particle or a light ray, either a deterministic, derivative formulation (Hamilton’s equations for position and momentum, Descartes’ laws of reflection and refraction), or a finalistic, integral approach
(Maupertuis’ principle of least action integral, Fermat’s principle of stationary optical path). The latter formulations are now well understood as resulting from interferences between waves associated with matter particles or light rays, constructive
along the effective, real trajectory and destructive along other, virtual paths [1, 55].
In the biological sciences, only deterministic approaches to microevolution (as
those involving Darwinian mechanisms of natural and sexual selection) have indeed
been rationalized. There is no real understanding of the macroevolution process in
which we are embedded (and not just external observers, as in the physical sciences).
However, the existence of selected trajectories for phylum evolution cannot be discarded. In a way, chance and necessity play a role similar in the Darwinian theory
of biological evolution and in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. In the former, the ecosystem acts as an ‘observer’ reducing the species ‘wave
packet’ (population variety) generated by ‘subquantum’ (genotype) fluctuations. If
biological phenomena are indeed, as Schrödinger had foreseen it [56], a manifestation of quantum laws at the macroscopic level, then constructive and destructive
interferences may operate also among living systems, and hence within social structures [57]. There remains a Maupertuis or Fermat-like principle to be built on a
quantification model for biological evolution.
Schrödinger’s argumentation on the quantum nature of living systems, together
with Darwin’s theory of biological evolution, reminds of Epicure’s conjecture that
matter is made up of atoms driven by chance and necessity. Schrödinger’s idea was
expressed before the discovery of DNA (which actually it inspired). But, still earlier,
life quantization was implicit in Mendel’s laws of heredity and Morgan’s theory of
genes. This may be seen as the latest step in a fractal progress of complexity. Among
the so-called elementary particles, some of the most stable (electrons and nucleons)
build up a few scores of atoms, which constitute a kind of alphabet making up usual
matter. Some of the molecules (words) built up with a few light atoms constitute
a higher-order alphabet making up molecules of life (sentences). These assemble
into cells (paragraphs), tissues (chapters), organisms (books), species (bookseries),
and eventually ecosystems (libraries).
This evolving auto-organization process [58] follows four main rules [59]. 1. At
every level of complexity, the forces that have driven the lower-level structures become less relevant, and new forces take over. 2. The higher the level of complexity, the weaker the driving force: nucleons are held together by the strong nuclear
force; atoms and molecules by the weaker, electromagnetic force; and living organisms communicate by exchanging energy-free signals (languages). 3. At every level
of complexity, a new variety of structures emerge, while only a few of those that
emerged at the lower level are retained (natural selection). 4. Subsidiary to this rule,
at critical levels of complexity there is a dissymmetry in the entities retained: matter