616
R. Pangestuti et al.
two natural green colorants from plants and microalgae, Chlorophyll (E140) and
Cu-chlorophyll (E141) (Viera et al. 2019). In cosmetics industries Cu-chlorophyll
(Cl 75810) is generally classified as non-toxic or harmful by a diverse source of
expertise. CI 75810 is typically used in hair color products, color cosmetics, and
bleaching products.
Carotenoids are the most ubiquitous and widespread natural pigments. These
natural pigments are responsible for the red and brown color of plants, algae (both
macro and micro), cyanobacteria, and some aquatic animals. Carotenoids consist of
terpenoid which is derived from a 40 carbon polyene chain and may be complemented by cyclic groups and oxygen-containing functional groups. Based on these
complementations, carotenoids may be classified into two types: carotenes and
xanthophylls (oxygenated derivatives of carotenes). Compared to other types of
pigments, carotenoids are more diverse and widely used in many products. Presently,
astaxanthin and β-carotene from Haematococcus pluvialis and Dunaliella salina,
respectively have been used in cosmetic products.
Phycobiliproteins are used as accessory or antenna pigments for photosynthetic
light collection which absorb energy in portions of the visible spectrum (450–
650 nm). In microalgae, phycobiliproteins are arranged in subcellular structures
called phycobilisomes, which allow the pigments to be arranged geometrically in a
manner that helps to optimize the capture of light and transfer of energy. The colors
of the phycobiliproteins arise from the presence of covalently attached prosthetic
groups, bilins which are linear tetrapyrroles derived biosynthetically from heme via
biliverdin. There are four main classes of phycobiliproteins namely allophycocyanin
(bluish green; λ max 650–655 nm), phycocyanin (blue; λ max 615–640 nm), phycoerythrin (red; λ max 565–575 nm), and phycoerythrocyanin (orange; λ max 577 nm)
(Begum et al. 2016). Presently, Spirulina sp. and Poprhyridium sp. are the major
producers of phycobiliproteins from microalgae (Rizzo et al. 2015).
25.3 Developments of Microalgae Pigments in Cosmetics
and Cosmeceuticals
Increasing awareness on the various environmental problems has led a shift in the
way consumers go about their life. In the past few years, there has been a change
in consumer attitudes toward a green lifestyle. Consumers are actively trying and
participate in reducing their impact on the environment (Cherian and Jacob 2012).
In addition, increasing awareness of the environmental hazard of synthetic colors
has increased demand for natural and environmentally sustainable products. Natural
pigments derived from microalgal biomass have a significant market value in this
regard. The demand for natural pigments from microalgae is estimated to rise each
year due to the increasing consumer knowledge. Microalgae are viewed as “natural
and healthy” by consumers, and this promotes a positive response in consumers, who
often regard natural entities (Pangestuti and Kim 2017). Microalgae are the fastest
R. Pangestuti et al.
two natural green colorants from plants and microalgae, Chlorophyll (E140) and
Cu-chlorophyll (E141) (Viera et al. 2019). In cosmetics industries Cu-chlorophyll
(Cl 75810) is generally classified as non-toxic or harmful by a diverse source of
expertise. CI 75810 is typically used in hair color products, color cosmetics, and
bleaching products.
Carotenoids are the most ubiquitous and widespread natural pigments. These
natural pigments are responsible for the red and brown color of plants, algae (both
macro and micro), cyanobacteria, and some aquatic animals. Carotenoids consist of
terpenoid which is derived from a 40 carbon polyene chain and may be complemented by cyclic groups and oxygen-containing functional groups. Based on these
complementations, carotenoids may be classified into two types: carotenes and
xanthophylls (oxygenated derivatives of carotenes). Compared to other types of
pigments, carotenoids are more diverse and widely used in many products. Presently,
astaxanthin and β-carotene from Haematococcus pluvialis and Dunaliella salina,
respectively have been used in cosmetic products.
Phycobiliproteins are used as accessory or antenna pigments for photosynthetic
light collection which absorb energy in portions of the visible spectrum (450–
650 nm). In microalgae, phycobiliproteins are arranged in subcellular structures
called phycobilisomes, which allow the pigments to be arranged geometrically in a
manner that helps to optimize the capture of light and transfer of energy. The colors
of the phycobiliproteins arise from the presence of covalently attached prosthetic
groups, bilins which are linear tetrapyrroles derived biosynthetically from heme via
biliverdin. There are four main classes of phycobiliproteins namely allophycocyanin
(bluish green; λ max 650–655 nm), phycocyanin (blue; λ max 615–640 nm), phycoerythrin (red; λ max 565–575 nm), and phycoerythrocyanin (orange; λ max 577 nm)
(Begum et al. 2016). Presently, Spirulina sp. and Poprhyridium sp. are the major
producers of phycobiliproteins from microalgae (Rizzo et al. 2015).
25.3 Developments of Microalgae Pigments in Cosmetics
and Cosmeceuticals
Increasing awareness on the various environmental problems has led a shift in the
way consumers go about their life. In the past few years, there has been a change
in consumer attitudes toward a green lifestyle. Consumers are actively trying and
participate in reducing their impact on the environment (Cherian and Jacob 2012).
In addition, increasing awareness of the environmental hazard of synthetic colors
has increased demand for natural and environmentally sustainable products. Natural
pigments derived from microalgal biomass have a significant market value in this
regard. The demand for natural pigments from microalgae is estimated to rise each
year due to the increasing consumer knowledge. Microalgae are viewed as “natural
and healthy” by consumers, and this promotes a positive response in consumers, who
often regard natural entities (Pangestuti and Kim 2017). Microalgae are the fastest