578
E. Manirafasha et al.
will reduce the gap between research outcomes and their implementation for the
betterment and well-being of global human health. Also, it will facilitate monitoring
and share information related to NCDs.
Antimicrobial resistance is another growing menace to global human health
(Daglia 2012) that needs urgent preventive action, where the effort and awareness of
every person (CDC 2017a, b) are required to reduce the usage of antibiotics, otherwise it will keep causing premature deaths and continue to deteriorate the world
economy, and be hindrance to sustainable development. For example, in 2013, the
CDC estimated that, in the United States, more than two million people are annually
afflicted with at least 23,000 dying as a result of antibiotic-resistant infections (CDC
2013).
The single most important origin factor of antibiotic resistance is the overuse of
antibiotics in human treatment and livestock production as a disease preventer and
growth promoter (CDC 2017b). Antibiotic resistance is spread into the environment
and food chain through two main channels: human wastes (including domestic waste
and pharmaceutical industry waste), misuse of antibiotics in livestock, aquaculture,
and crops (Wongsuvan et al. 2018).
The misuse of antibiotics in food production is the main factor contributing
to antibiotic resistance (Sprenger 2017). Most disease-causing microorganisms are
living in the environment. Once the antibiotics are discharged in the environment,
especially water resources, those microorganisms become familiar with the antibiotic, then through natural and genetic adaptation, they become resistant to antibiotics
as discussed by Walsh (2000).
The introduction of antibiotics was considered as a new era in modern medicine.
Antibiotics are necessary critical tools to protect people against infection (CDC
2017a), but it is necessary to properly use the necessary antibiotic at the right time,
in the right dose, and patients’ encouragement to take them as indicated by the physician. These precautions and awareness can help fight antibiotic resistance, reduce
unnecessary side effects from antibiotics, and help make sure life-saving antibiotics
will work when we need them in the future (CDC 2017a).
Adequate policies, action plans, and strategies have to be regularly established,
implemented, and monitored to stop antibiotic resistance. First, doctors, nurses,
veterinarians, and other health workers are urged to avoid unnecessary prescription of antibiotics and to prevent infections by promoting wash and sanitation and
employing vaccines where appropriate. Furthermore, they should pay more attention to human patient and animal treatment to prescribe appropriate antibiotics when
necessary. Second, farmers and agriculture practitioners should only give antibiotics
to their animals for controlling and treating infections; there are alternative ways such
as clean and uncrowded conditions and vaccination of animals, use healthy feed that
contains prebiotics (as feed) can reduce the need of antibiotics. Third, governments
and development organizations are urged to set policies and strategies to tackle antibiotic resistance such as the promotion of sanitation, rules, and regulations concerning
supply and usage of quality medicines, availability and affordability of essential
antibiotics to be used when necessary, training about the usage and side effects
of overuse of medicines. Furthermore, governments should develop their national
E. Manirafasha et al.
will reduce the gap between research outcomes and their implementation for the
betterment and well-being of global human health. Also, it will facilitate monitoring
and share information related to NCDs.
Antimicrobial resistance is another growing menace to global human health
(Daglia 2012) that needs urgent preventive action, where the effort and awareness of
every person (CDC 2017a, b) are required to reduce the usage of antibiotics, otherwise it will keep causing premature deaths and continue to deteriorate the world
economy, and be hindrance to sustainable development. For example, in 2013, the
CDC estimated that, in the United States, more than two million people are annually
afflicted with at least 23,000 dying as a result of antibiotic-resistant infections (CDC
2013).
The single most important origin factor of antibiotic resistance is the overuse of
antibiotics in human treatment and livestock production as a disease preventer and
growth promoter (CDC 2017b). Antibiotic resistance is spread into the environment
and food chain through two main channels: human wastes (including domestic waste
and pharmaceutical industry waste), misuse of antibiotics in livestock, aquaculture,
and crops (Wongsuvan et al. 2018).
The misuse of antibiotics in food production is the main factor contributing
to antibiotic resistance (Sprenger 2017). Most disease-causing microorganisms are
living in the environment. Once the antibiotics are discharged in the environment,
especially water resources, those microorganisms become familiar with the antibiotic, then through natural and genetic adaptation, they become resistant to antibiotics
as discussed by Walsh (2000).
The introduction of antibiotics was considered as a new era in modern medicine.
Antibiotics are necessary critical tools to protect people against infection (CDC
2017a), but it is necessary to properly use the necessary antibiotic at the right time,
in the right dose, and patients’ encouragement to take them as indicated by the physician. These precautions and awareness can help fight antibiotic resistance, reduce
unnecessary side effects from antibiotics, and help make sure life-saving antibiotics
will work when we need them in the future (CDC 2017a).
Adequate policies, action plans, and strategies have to be regularly established,
implemented, and monitored to stop antibiotic resistance. First, doctors, nurses,
veterinarians, and other health workers are urged to avoid unnecessary prescription of antibiotics and to prevent infections by promoting wash and sanitation and
employing vaccines where appropriate. Furthermore, they should pay more attention to human patient and animal treatment to prescribe appropriate antibiotics when
necessary. Second, farmers and agriculture practitioners should only give antibiotics
to their animals for controlling and treating infections; there are alternative ways such
as clean and uncrowded conditions and vaccination of animals, use healthy feed that
contains prebiotics (as feed) can reduce the need of antibiotics. Third, governments
and development organizations are urged to set policies and strategies to tackle antibiotic resistance such as the promotion of sanitation, rules, and regulations concerning
supply and usage of quality medicines, availability and affordability of essential
antibiotics to be used when necessary, training about the usage and side effects
of overuse of medicines. Furthermore, governments should develop their national