490
F. Md. Yusoff et al.
resistance in astaxanthin and phycocyanin fed larvae. The study validated that astaxanthin and phycocyanin at 1% dietary levels improved survival and disease resistance
in Asian seabass larvae but did not affect growth performance.
In another study by Muchtar et al. (2019), phycocyanin extracted from Spirulina platensis and administered in the feed at a dose of 150 mg/kg feed improved
survival and non-specific immune response of common carp Cyprinus carpio when
challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. Spirulina was also reported to be able to
increase immune responses in sturgeon (Huso huso) against Streptococcus iniae,
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) against Pseudomonas fluorescence, and carp
(Cyprinus carpio) against Aeromonas hydrophila (Watanuki et al. 2006; Adel et al.
2016; Mahmoud et al. 2018). This may be due to the nutritional composition, bioactive compounds and pigments such as phycocyanin (17.2%) and chlorophyll (1.2%)
present in Spirulina (Gershwin and Belay 2007). In mice, phycocyanin showed
antioxidative properties, and was able to prevent the formation of malondialdehyde
in the liver, kidney and pancreas (Ou et al. 2012). Phycocyanin was also reported to
protect against renal kidney failure (Iijima et al. 1982). The role of phycobiliproteins
for fish health requires further investigations.
19.8 Photobioreactor Performances in Carotenoid
Production
The development of the efficient system for mass production of carotenoids represents one of major issue in microalgal biotechnology due to great potentials of
microalgae as high valued commercial products in nutraceutical, cosmeceutical and
pharmaceutical industries (Gong and Bassi 2016). The types of carotenoids produced
by microalgae depend on the species and strains, and the carotenoids concentration
and production rate in microalgae biomass greatly rely on types of photobioreactor
and its operational conditions (García-Malea et al. 2009; Ma et al. 2019; Prieto
et al. 2011). Many kinds of carotenoids are produced by microalgae, however only
a few number of carotenoids including astaxanthin, lutein and β-carotene have been
produced on commercial scale.
Table 19.3 shows the types of photobioreactor, the light intensity, the biomass
production rate and the astaxanthin content in previous studies on Haematococcus
spp. It has been observed that Haematococcus cells easily turn to cyst and accumulate
astaxanthin under the stress conditions including high light intensity and low nutrient
concentrations (Zhang et al. 2018). Generally, production process of astaxanthin can
be divided into two stages: a green stage for cell growth without stress and a red stage
for astaxanthin accumulation with stress condition (Boussiba and Vonshak 1991;
Choi et al. 2011). In the green stage, higher growth rate can be maintained because
of the non-stress condition for cell growth (Boussiba and Vonshak 1991). It has
been mentioned that Haematococcus genus has relatively low growth rate compared
with other green algae, while some of Haematococcus strains have high growth rates
F. Md. Yusoff et al.
resistance in astaxanthin and phycocyanin fed larvae. The study validated that astaxanthin and phycocyanin at 1% dietary levels improved survival and disease resistance
in Asian seabass larvae but did not affect growth performance.
In another study by Muchtar et al. (2019), phycocyanin extracted from Spirulina platensis and administered in the feed at a dose of 150 mg/kg feed improved
survival and non-specific immune response of common carp Cyprinus carpio when
challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. Spirulina was also reported to be able to
increase immune responses in sturgeon (Huso huso) against Streptococcus iniae,
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) against Pseudomonas fluorescence, and carp
(Cyprinus carpio) against Aeromonas hydrophila (Watanuki et al. 2006; Adel et al.
2016; Mahmoud et al. 2018). This may be due to the nutritional composition, bioactive compounds and pigments such as phycocyanin (17.2%) and chlorophyll (1.2%)
present in Spirulina (Gershwin and Belay 2007). In mice, phycocyanin showed
antioxidative properties, and was able to prevent the formation of malondialdehyde
in the liver, kidney and pancreas (Ou et al. 2012). Phycocyanin was also reported to
protect against renal kidney failure (Iijima et al. 1982). The role of phycobiliproteins
for fish health requires further investigations.
19.8 Photobioreactor Performances in Carotenoid
Production
The development of the efficient system for mass production of carotenoids represents one of major issue in microalgal biotechnology due to great potentials of
microalgae as high valued commercial products in nutraceutical, cosmeceutical and
pharmaceutical industries (Gong and Bassi 2016). The types of carotenoids produced
by microalgae depend on the species and strains, and the carotenoids concentration
and production rate in microalgae biomass greatly rely on types of photobioreactor
and its operational conditions (García-Malea et al. 2009; Ma et al. 2019; Prieto
et al. 2011). Many kinds of carotenoids are produced by microalgae, however only
a few number of carotenoids including astaxanthin, lutein and β-carotene have been
produced on commercial scale.
Table 19.3 shows the types of photobioreactor, the light intensity, the biomass
production rate and the astaxanthin content in previous studies on Haematococcus
spp. It has been observed that Haematococcus cells easily turn to cyst and accumulate
astaxanthin under the stress conditions including high light intensity and low nutrient
concentrations (Zhang et al. 2018). Generally, production process of astaxanthin can
be divided into two stages: a green stage for cell growth without stress and a red stage
for astaxanthin accumulation with stress condition (Boussiba and Vonshak 1991;
Choi et al. 2011). In the green stage, higher growth rate can be maintained because
of the non-stress condition for cell growth (Boussiba and Vonshak 1991). It has
been mentioned that Haematococcus genus has relatively low growth rate compared
with other green algae, while some of Haematococcus strains have high growth rates