488
F. Md. Yusoff et al.
induced by the presence of carotenoids (Liu et al. 2016). Yi et al. (2014) demonstrated
that astaxanthin and other xanthophylls were useful in improving growth and colour
in yellow croaker. In ornamental fish industry, colouration is one of the product main
attributes. Ho et al. (2013) and Liu et al. (2016) demonstrated the effects of astaxanthin on the pigmentation in Spinecheek anemonefish and discus fish, respectively
(Table 19.2). However, the effects on pigmentation could vary with the pigment
sources. Sun et al. (2012) reported that diet supplementation with a photosynthetic
bacterium, Rhodopseudanonas palustris, did not significantly enhance the colouration of the Japanese ornamental koi, Cyprinus carpio, compared to a blue-green
algae, Spirulina platensis.
In channel catfish, on the other hand, yellowish-reddish pigments are undesirable
because any deviation from the normal white flesh the fish reduces its marketability
(Li et al. 2007). However, the accumulation of carotenoids in catfish can benefit the
human health which can satisfy the emerging markets of healthy functional foods.
According to Barbosa et al. (1999), astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are responsible for
the typical red colour in salmonids similar to the wild fish, and thus these two pigments
are commonly used in the diet of farmed salmonids for pigmentation enhancement
(Table 19.2).
Carotenoids are also used to improve aquaculture production by enhancing
the broodstock quality and improvement of live feeds (Table 19.2). In crayfish,
carotenoids improved the broodstock reproduction (Harlıo˘ glu and Farhadi 2017).
Live feeds such as rotifers and microcrustaceans, like other aquatic consumers do not
contain endogenous carotenoids, but can be enriched through their diets. Carotenoid
lutein was used to enrich live feeds such as rotifers (van Bergeijk et al. 2013). Johnston
et al. (2018) noted that the rotifer population supplemented with astaxanthin was more
productive and had higher nutritional contents for healthy development of larval fish
compared to rotifers without the supplement. Chaoruangrit et al. (2018) reported that
microalgal diets improved growth, survival, reproduction and carotenoid contents in
a fairy shrimp, Branchinella thailandensis. High carotenoid contents in cultured
animals such as pearl oysters can also increase their resistance to environmental
stressors such as high temperature (Table 19.2), suggesting that antioxidant system
in the carotenoids participated in maintaining the oxidation and reduction balance
when the animals were exposed to high temperature stress (Meng et al. 2017). In
addition, Nadukooru and Yallapragada (2015) reported that carotenoids can also be
used as a sensitive indicator of sublethal cadmium toxicity in Penaeus monodon post
larvae, indicating the multi bio-functionalities of carotenoids in aquaculture.
Different sources of pigments may affect aquaculture organisms differently. Many
studies showed that astaxanthin was more effective in improving growth and health
of many cultured organisms (Table 19.2). However, Boonyaratpalin et al. (2001)
reported by supplementing tiger shrimp diet with β-carotene from Dunaliella salina
resulted in no significant differences in terms of growth rate, survival rate, feed
conversion ratio and immune response compared to those using the more expensive
astaxanthin.
In feed industries, many synthetic commercial antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tert-butylhydroquinone
F. Md. Yusoff et al.
induced by the presence of carotenoids (Liu et al. 2016). Yi et al. (2014) demonstrated
that astaxanthin and other xanthophylls were useful in improving growth and colour
in yellow croaker. In ornamental fish industry, colouration is one of the product main
attributes. Ho et al. (2013) and Liu et al. (2016) demonstrated the effects of astaxanthin on the pigmentation in Spinecheek anemonefish and discus fish, respectively
(Table 19.2). However, the effects on pigmentation could vary with the pigment
sources. Sun et al. (2012) reported that diet supplementation with a photosynthetic
bacterium, Rhodopseudanonas palustris, did not significantly enhance the colouration of the Japanese ornamental koi, Cyprinus carpio, compared to a blue-green
algae, Spirulina platensis.
In channel catfish, on the other hand, yellowish-reddish pigments are undesirable
because any deviation from the normal white flesh the fish reduces its marketability
(Li et al. 2007). However, the accumulation of carotenoids in catfish can benefit the
human health which can satisfy the emerging markets of healthy functional foods.
According to Barbosa et al. (1999), astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are responsible for
the typical red colour in salmonids similar to the wild fish, and thus these two pigments
are commonly used in the diet of farmed salmonids for pigmentation enhancement
(Table 19.2).
Carotenoids are also used to improve aquaculture production by enhancing
the broodstock quality and improvement of live feeds (Table 19.2). In crayfish,
carotenoids improved the broodstock reproduction (Harlıo˘ glu and Farhadi 2017).
Live feeds such as rotifers and microcrustaceans, like other aquatic consumers do not
contain endogenous carotenoids, but can be enriched through their diets. Carotenoid
lutein was used to enrich live feeds such as rotifers (van Bergeijk et al. 2013). Johnston
et al. (2018) noted that the rotifer population supplemented with astaxanthin was more
productive and had higher nutritional contents for healthy development of larval fish
compared to rotifers without the supplement. Chaoruangrit et al. (2018) reported that
microalgal diets improved growth, survival, reproduction and carotenoid contents in
a fairy shrimp, Branchinella thailandensis. High carotenoid contents in cultured
animals such as pearl oysters can also increase their resistance to environmental
stressors such as high temperature (Table 19.2), suggesting that antioxidant system
in the carotenoids participated in maintaining the oxidation and reduction balance
when the animals were exposed to high temperature stress (Meng et al. 2017). In
addition, Nadukooru and Yallapragada (2015) reported that carotenoids can also be
used as a sensitive indicator of sublethal cadmium toxicity in Penaeus monodon post
larvae, indicating the multi bio-functionalities of carotenoids in aquaculture.
Different sources of pigments may affect aquaculture organisms differently. Many
studies showed that astaxanthin was more effective in improving growth and health
of many cultured organisms (Table 19.2). However, Boonyaratpalin et al. (2001)
reported by supplementing tiger shrimp diet with β-carotene from Dunaliella salina
resulted in no significant differences in terms of growth rate, survival rate, feed
conversion ratio and immune response compared to those using the more expensive
astaxanthin.
In feed industries, many synthetic commercial antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), tert-butylhydroquinone