19 Use of Microalgae Pigments in Aquaculture
475
classes: phycobiliproteins (up to 8% dry weight), chlorophylls (0.5–1.0% dry weight)
and carotenoids (0.1–0.2% dry weight, and up to 14% dry weight for β-carotene)
(Gouveia and Empis 2003; de Jesus Raposo et al. 2013; Markou and Nerantzis 2013;
Barra et al. 2014).
Microalgae pigments are often associated with antioxidant activities whereby
they delay the oxidation of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA, cell membrane
and other cellular components. This is because microalgal cells contain vitamin A,
vitamin C, vitamin E, β-carotene, lycopene, polyphenols, flavonoids and carotenoids
(Table 19.1). Da Silva Vaz et al. (2016) reported that several genera of microalgae
such as Spirulina, Botryococcus, Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus and Nostoc
have been grown for bioactive compounds. Some species of microalgae such as
Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis suecica and Pavlova salina showed high carotenoid
contents and have the potential to be commercially produced (Ahmed et al. 2014).
Some microalgae produce high biomass because they can grow by more than one
mode. Liu et al. (2014) reported that Chlorella zofingiensis showed better growth
(phototrophically, heterotrophically and mixotrophically) than H. pluvialis for mass
production of astaxanthin.
With an estimated microalgae species in the range of 200,000 to several million
species (Norton et al. 1996), the search for high-value microalgae species will
continue. Safafar et al. (2016) demonstrated that Nannochloropsis salina can be used
to produce high-value compounds such as carotenoids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA),
tocopherol and proteins by optimizing the photobioreactor and culture media. Other
microalgae species such as Dunaliella sp., Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis gaditana also have high carotenoid and phenolic contents and have the potential to be
developed as new sources of antioxidants (Maadane et al. 2015). Some microalgae
species have many types of pigments within a single cell. For example, a freshwater
alga, Oedogonium intermedium showed high oxidant activities by seven different
carotenoids; neoxanthin, 9
-cis neoxanthin, loroxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, αcarotene and β-carotene (Wang et al. 2018a). Pigments in microalgae can be diverse,
and some are found only in a specific group of microalgae that they can be used
as markers. Paliwal et al. (2016) studied carotenoid contents from 57 species of
Chlorophyta and Cyanobacteria and suggested that lutein and violaxanthin can be
used as markers for Chlorophyta, and myxoxanthophyll and echinenone as markers
for Cyanobacteria.
19.4 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds with long conjugated double bonds,
chemical characteristics which are responsible for health-related properties such as
antioxidant activities, protection from eye diseases, anti-inflammatory, prevention of
age-related macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular problems and
anticancer activities (Ahmed et al. 2014; Heo et al. 2018). van Breemen et al. (2012)
reported that approximately 50 carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A, which is
475
classes: phycobiliproteins (up to 8% dry weight), chlorophylls (0.5–1.0% dry weight)
and carotenoids (0.1–0.2% dry weight, and up to 14% dry weight for β-carotene)
(Gouveia and Empis 2003; de Jesus Raposo et al. 2013; Markou and Nerantzis 2013;
Barra et al. 2014).
Microalgae pigments are often associated with antioxidant activities whereby
they delay the oxidation of protein, carbohydrates, lipids, DNA, cell membrane
and other cellular components. This is because microalgal cells contain vitamin A,
vitamin C, vitamin E, β-carotene, lycopene, polyphenols, flavonoids and carotenoids
(Table 19.1). Da Silva Vaz et al. (2016) reported that several genera of microalgae
such as Spirulina, Botryococcus, Chlorella, Dunaliella, Haematococcus and Nostoc
have been grown for bioactive compounds. Some species of microalgae such as
Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis suecica and Pavlova salina showed high carotenoid
contents and have the potential to be commercially produced (Ahmed et al. 2014).
Some microalgae produce high biomass because they can grow by more than one
mode. Liu et al. (2014) reported that Chlorella zofingiensis showed better growth
(phototrophically, heterotrophically and mixotrophically) than H. pluvialis for mass
production of astaxanthin.
With an estimated microalgae species in the range of 200,000 to several million
species (Norton et al. 1996), the search for high-value microalgae species will
continue. Safafar et al. (2016) demonstrated that Nannochloropsis salina can be used
to produce high-value compounds such as carotenoids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA),
tocopherol and proteins by optimizing the photobioreactor and culture media. Other
microalgae species such as Dunaliella sp., Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis gaditana also have high carotenoid and phenolic contents and have the potential to be
developed as new sources of antioxidants (Maadane et al. 2015). Some microalgae
species have many types of pigments within a single cell. For example, a freshwater
alga, Oedogonium intermedium showed high oxidant activities by seven different
carotenoids; neoxanthin, 9
-cis neoxanthin, loroxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, αcarotene and β-carotene (Wang et al. 2018a). Pigments in microalgae can be diverse,
and some are found only in a specific group of microalgae that they can be used
as markers. Paliwal et al. (2016) studied carotenoid contents from 57 species of
Chlorophyta and Cyanobacteria and suggested that lutein and violaxanthin can be
used as markers for Chlorophyta, and myxoxanthophyll and echinenone as markers
for Cyanobacteria.
19.4 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds with long conjugated double bonds,
chemical characteristics which are responsible for health-related properties such as
antioxidant activities, protection from eye diseases, anti-inflammatory, prevention of
age-related macular degeneration, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular problems and
anticancer activities (Ahmed et al. 2014; Heo et al. 2018). van Breemen et al. (2012)
reported that approximately 50 carotenoids are precursors of vitamin A, which is