19 Use of Microalgae Pigments in Aquaculture
473
In addition, microalgae culture that consumes CO 2 and nutrients improves the environment by decreasing wastes, thus preventing eutrophication in water bodies and
help to decrease atmospheric carbon content.
Cultivation of microalgae is gaining more attention worldwide as it is environmentally friendly and sustainable. However, large scale production of microalgae biomass
is still limited and costly. Microalgae farming such as Spirulina spp., Chlorella
spp. and Haematococcus pluvialis on small scale like backyard operation to large
scale production can be found in approximately 11 countries in 2016 (FAO 2018).
For microalgal pigments, commercial production and extraction of carotenoids are
limited to a few species of microalgae. For example, β-carotene from Dunaliella
salina and astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis are extracted for use as food
colourants (Ju et al. 2011), while Muriellopsis has been used commercially to produce
lutein due to its high lutein content and high growth rate (Lin et al. 2015; Wang et al.
2018a). Efforts are still on to economically and sustainably optimize large scale
microalgae biomass and bio-compound production (Yusoff et al. 2019). In addition
to culture, microalgae large scale harvesting such as centrifugation, fractionation,
flocculation and coagulation, filtration and ultrasonic separation is also costly and
energy intensive. Xiao et al. (2019) suggested that microfiltration technique was
highly efficient in microalgae harvesting.
In addition to the common commercially important microalgae (Spirulina sp.,
Chlorella spp., Haematococcus spp., and Dunaleilla sp.), other potential species
include those brown/golden microalgae such as Chaetoceros spp., Thalassiosira spp.,
Skeletonema spp., and other diatom species that contain fucoxanthin (Foo et al. 2015,
2017). Park et al. (2018) proposed a new microalga Schizochytrium sp. as another
potentially important commercial species due to its high levels of carotenoids and
fatty acids suitable for feed additives and other health products. In addition, Deli
et al. (2014) also reported that Euglena sanguinea and Nostoc sp. have shown high
contents of carotenoids.
Compared to terrestrial plants, microalgae have a number of advantages including
faster growth rate (five to ten times higher), unlimited by land area and climate
(controlled culture conditions) and year-round production (Heo et al. 2018; Yusoff
et al. 2019). In addition, some carotenoids such as fucoxanthin and loroxanthin are lacking in terrestrial plants (Foo et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2018a). Thus,
microalgae have many species that can be commercially developed to provide
adequate nutritional sources for aquaculture industry.
19.2 Microalgae Have Many Uses
Microalgal cells in general are highly nutritious containing biomolecules associated with fast growth and high immunity such as vitamins, antioxidants and antiinflammatory, in addition to basic food components such as proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and trace elements (Goh et al. 2014; Yaakob et al. 2014). Feller et al. (2018)
reported that microalgae are potent source for functional foods due to their ability
473
In addition, microalgae culture that consumes CO 2 and nutrients improves the environment by decreasing wastes, thus preventing eutrophication in water bodies and
help to decrease atmospheric carbon content.
Cultivation of microalgae is gaining more attention worldwide as it is environmentally friendly and sustainable. However, large scale production of microalgae biomass
is still limited and costly. Microalgae farming such as Spirulina spp., Chlorella
spp. and Haematococcus pluvialis on small scale like backyard operation to large
scale production can be found in approximately 11 countries in 2016 (FAO 2018).
For microalgal pigments, commercial production and extraction of carotenoids are
limited to a few species of microalgae. For example, β-carotene from Dunaliella
salina and astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis are extracted for use as food
colourants (Ju et al. 2011), while Muriellopsis has been used commercially to produce
lutein due to its high lutein content and high growth rate (Lin et al. 2015; Wang et al.
2018a). Efforts are still on to economically and sustainably optimize large scale
microalgae biomass and bio-compound production (Yusoff et al. 2019). In addition
to culture, microalgae large scale harvesting such as centrifugation, fractionation,
flocculation and coagulation, filtration and ultrasonic separation is also costly and
energy intensive. Xiao et al. (2019) suggested that microfiltration technique was
highly efficient in microalgae harvesting.
In addition to the common commercially important microalgae (Spirulina sp.,
Chlorella spp., Haematococcus spp., and Dunaleilla sp.), other potential species
include those brown/golden microalgae such as Chaetoceros spp., Thalassiosira spp.,
Skeletonema spp., and other diatom species that contain fucoxanthin (Foo et al. 2015,
2017). Park et al. (2018) proposed a new microalga Schizochytrium sp. as another
potentially important commercial species due to its high levels of carotenoids and
fatty acids suitable for feed additives and other health products. In addition, Deli
et al. (2014) also reported that Euglena sanguinea and Nostoc sp. have shown high
contents of carotenoids.
Compared to terrestrial plants, microalgae have a number of advantages including
faster growth rate (five to ten times higher), unlimited by land area and climate
(controlled culture conditions) and year-round production (Heo et al. 2018; Yusoff
et al. 2019). In addition, some carotenoids such as fucoxanthin and loroxanthin are lacking in terrestrial plants (Foo et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2018a). Thus,
microalgae have many species that can be commercially developed to provide
adequate nutritional sources for aquaculture industry.
19.2 Microalgae Have Many Uses
Microalgal cells in general are highly nutritious containing biomolecules associated with fast growth and high immunity such as vitamins, antioxidants and antiinflammatory, in addition to basic food components such as proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and trace elements (Goh et al. 2014; Yaakob et al. 2014). Feller et al. (2018)
reported that microalgae are potent source for functional foods due to their ability