408
A. S. Fernandes et al.
that it could represent up to third of world production. In 2018, according to the
Markets and Markets reports, Europe was a leader in the food colouring market, a
market driven by the demand for awareness of safe products among consumers and
by the inclination and pursuit of health-food natural dyes.
In order, to be considered suitable for commercial pigment production, strains
must meet certain criteria such as ease of cultivation, low toxicity, nutritional value,
and the presence of digestible cell walls to provide nutrients (Borowitzka 2013).
Among the species of microalgae considered to be commercially safe through
the GRAS status (generally recognized as safe), which is granted by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), are Spirulina/Arthrospira sp., Chlorella sp.,
Porphyridium cruentum, Crypthecodinium cohnii, Haematococcus pluvialis, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dunaliella sp., Nannocloropsis sp., Nitzschia sp., and
Schizochytrium sp., some of its by-products are already authorized as ingredients
by the European Union, Japan, USA, and Brazil, thus, they can be exploited as a
source of natural chlorophyll (Jacob-Lopes et al. 2019).
Algae, silkworm droppings, alfalfa, pine needles, and various other types of
grass are exploited for chlorophyll extraction. However, the concentration of this
compound in plant sources varies, as they depend on climatic conditions and
geographical position, varying the quantities over a wide range, showing one more
advantage in the exploitation of these pigments in microalgae. Large-scale cultivation of microalgae has grown in recent decades, especially Chlorella and Spirulina.
Spirulina’s fresh biomass is one of the largest sources of chlorophyll in nature,
containing ten times more than spinach (Henrickson 1989; Lanfer-Marquez and
Borrmann 2009).
Spirulina and Chlorella microalgae have significant benefits as potential sources
of chlorophyll and are widely sold as supplements, Spirulina was sold at a price
of US$ 20/kg and Chlorella at a price of US$ 44/kg in 2017, these two microalgal
species gain prominence by producing the highest volumes of biomass. Spirulina
production is widely distributed in Asia and the USA, while Chlorella is produced
mostly in Asia. China is the country with the highest production of Spirulina in the
world, with a total production of around 3500 t (dry weight) in 2009 (Lu et al. 2011;
Voort et al. 2015; Oilgae 2016; Matos 2017).
In order to obtain chlorophyll in a given species, intracellular chlorophyll must first
be extracted, and the traditional method that has been employed through extraction
by organic solvents as shown in Fig. 16.7. It is a process in which it must be carried
out quickly, without the presence of much light, thus avoiding the processes of
photodegradation. Acetone, methanol, ethanol, hexane, chlorinated solvents, and
others, are applied in the extraction (Lee 2012).
Filtration and centrifugation serve to remove the solids remaining in the solvent.
After separation of the solvent, the extraction yield can reach around 20%, being
chlorophylls and their derivatives.
Currently, natural pigments are the most strictly regulated additives for food applications worldwide, but there are still many obstacles to a worldwide adaptation of this
type of natural product, interfering in outsourcing, import, export, and has negative
economic effects. Adoption of different categories of additives is difficult, as laws
A. S. Fernandes et al.
that it could represent up to third of world production. In 2018, according to the
Markets and Markets reports, Europe was a leader in the food colouring market, a
market driven by the demand for awareness of safe products among consumers and
by the inclination and pursuit of health-food natural dyes.
In order, to be considered suitable for commercial pigment production, strains
must meet certain criteria such as ease of cultivation, low toxicity, nutritional value,
and the presence of digestible cell walls to provide nutrients (Borowitzka 2013).
Among the species of microalgae considered to be commercially safe through
the GRAS status (generally recognized as safe), which is granted by the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), are Spirulina/Arthrospira sp., Chlorella sp.,
Porphyridium cruentum, Crypthecodinium cohnii, Haematococcus pluvialis, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Dunaliella sp., Nannocloropsis sp., Nitzschia sp., and
Schizochytrium sp., some of its by-products are already authorized as ingredients
by the European Union, Japan, USA, and Brazil, thus, they can be exploited as a
source of natural chlorophyll (Jacob-Lopes et al. 2019).
Algae, silkworm droppings, alfalfa, pine needles, and various other types of
grass are exploited for chlorophyll extraction. However, the concentration of this
compound in plant sources varies, as they depend on climatic conditions and
geographical position, varying the quantities over a wide range, showing one more
advantage in the exploitation of these pigments in microalgae. Large-scale cultivation of microalgae has grown in recent decades, especially Chlorella and Spirulina.
Spirulina’s fresh biomass is one of the largest sources of chlorophyll in nature,
containing ten times more than spinach (Henrickson 1989; Lanfer-Marquez and
Borrmann 2009).
Spirulina and Chlorella microalgae have significant benefits as potential sources
of chlorophyll and are widely sold as supplements, Spirulina was sold at a price
of US$ 20/kg and Chlorella at a price of US$ 44/kg in 2017, these two microalgal
species gain prominence by producing the highest volumes of biomass. Spirulina
production is widely distributed in Asia and the USA, while Chlorella is produced
mostly in Asia. China is the country with the highest production of Spirulina in the
world, with a total production of around 3500 t (dry weight) in 2009 (Lu et al. 2011;
Voort et al. 2015; Oilgae 2016; Matos 2017).
In order to obtain chlorophyll in a given species, intracellular chlorophyll must first
be extracted, and the traditional method that has been employed through extraction
by organic solvents as shown in Fig. 16.7. It is a process in which it must be carried
out quickly, without the presence of much light, thus avoiding the processes of
photodegradation. Acetone, methanol, ethanol, hexane, chlorinated solvents, and
others, are applied in the extraction (Lee 2012).
Filtration and centrifugation serve to remove the solids remaining in the solvent.
After separation of the solvent, the extraction yield can reach around 20%, being
chlorophylls and their derivatives.
Currently, natural pigments are the most strictly regulated additives for food applications worldwide, but there are still many obstacles to a worldwide adaptation of this
type of natural product, interfering in outsourcing, import, export, and has negative
economic effects. Adoption of different categories of additives is difficult, as laws