16 Chlorophylls as Food Additives
401
as with chlorophyllin synthesis, these chemical changes result in the formation of
a complex mixture of various chlorine compounds including the most commonly
found copper isochlorin e 4 , copper chlorins e 4 (derived from chlorophyll a), and e 6
(derived from chlorophyll b), among other molecules (Mortensen and Geppel 2007;
Tumolo and Lanfer-Marquez 2012).
Indeed, these chlorophyll derivatives (specifically, Cu-chlorophyll, complexes
chlorophyllins, and Cu-chlorophyllin) previously mentioned not only exhibit
outstanding stability to the pigment but also cause expression of more desirable green
colours. Which justifies the fact that they, together with extracts of natural chlorophyll, are the approved worldwide green colourants since they present greater chemical stability to pH change, temperature, and prone to light, heat, and oxygen disintegration. In addition to these important characteristics, as a result of changes in their
polarity, these formed compounds can be applied in liposoluble and hydrosoluble
matrices (Shahid and Mohammad 2013; Sigurdson et al. 2017).
Although chemical methods are widely utilized to increase the stability against
oxidation and aqueous solubility of green natural dyes, alternative techniques have
been reported. In parallel, physical methods such as microencapsulation are currently
under development (Raei et al. 2017; Ozkan et al. 2019; Kang et al. 2019). However,
each type of encapsulating agent has its own specific advantages and drawbacks for
encapsulation, protection as well as cost, ease of use, the biocompatibility among
other aggravating factors (Ozkan et al. 2019). Recently, sodium caseinate (NaCas),
a commercially available casein-rich ingredient, has been reported as a natural the
chlorophyll a and b colour stabilizer the same time as increasing the solubility of
these compounds in aqueous dispersion (He et al. 2019).
Regardless of these aspects, among the five different chlorophylls that exist, it is
well known that green food dyes from natural sources are relatively limited to chlorophyll a and b species (Solymosi and Mysliwa-Kurdziel 2016). This is reflected by
the use of higher plants as the primary source of obtaining these pigments (Wrolstad
and Culver 2012). At the same time, some food industries have already explored
the use of green dyes obtained from microalgae as well as other pigments widely
marketed from these microorganisms (phycobilins from Spirulina; β-carotene from
Dunaliella; astaxanthin from Haematococcus) (D’Alessandro and Filho 2016; Matos
2017). However, these extracts are obtained from microalgae that present species
mostly of chlorophyll a and b, which equals, at the level of chemical constitution,
the extracts obtained from higher plants.
Independent of species of chlorophylls commercially consolidated other chlorophylls (chlorophyll c, d, and f ) and their derivative compounds, present exclusively
in microalgae, can be implemented as alternative sources for green natural pigments
considering the chemical stability of these compounds and their colour potential.
Due to the structural chemical characteristics, chlorophyll c species, for example,
indicated in the literature to be more stable and presents greater solubility in polar
matrices than chlorophylls a and b (Lanfer-Marquez and Sinnecker 2008; Zapata et al.
2011, Chen et al. 2018). Considering these aspects, a greater number of molecules
can be obtained to compose the green dyes class.
401
as with chlorophyllin synthesis, these chemical changes result in the formation of
a complex mixture of various chlorine compounds including the most commonly
found copper isochlorin e 4 , copper chlorins e 4 (derived from chlorophyll a), and e 6
(derived from chlorophyll b), among other molecules (Mortensen and Geppel 2007;
Tumolo and Lanfer-Marquez 2012).
Indeed, these chlorophyll derivatives (specifically, Cu-chlorophyll, complexes
chlorophyllins, and Cu-chlorophyllin) previously mentioned not only exhibit
outstanding stability to the pigment but also cause expression of more desirable green
colours. Which justifies the fact that they, together with extracts of natural chlorophyll, are the approved worldwide green colourants since they present greater chemical stability to pH change, temperature, and prone to light, heat, and oxygen disintegration. In addition to these important characteristics, as a result of changes in their
polarity, these formed compounds can be applied in liposoluble and hydrosoluble
matrices (Shahid and Mohammad 2013; Sigurdson et al. 2017).
Although chemical methods are widely utilized to increase the stability against
oxidation and aqueous solubility of green natural dyes, alternative techniques have
been reported. In parallel, physical methods such as microencapsulation are currently
under development (Raei et al. 2017; Ozkan et al. 2019; Kang et al. 2019). However,
each type of encapsulating agent has its own specific advantages and drawbacks for
encapsulation, protection as well as cost, ease of use, the biocompatibility among
other aggravating factors (Ozkan et al. 2019). Recently, sodium caseinate (NaCas),
a commercially available casein-rich ingredient, has been reported as a natural the
chlorophyll a and b colour stabilizer the same time as increasing the solubility of
these compounds in aqueous dispersion (He et al. 2019).
Regardless of these aspects, among the five different chlorophylls that exist, it is
well known that green food dyes from natural sources are relatively limited to chlorophyll a and b species (Solymosi and Mysliwa-Kurdziel 2016). This is reflected by
the use of higher plants as the primary source of obtaining these pigments (Wrolstad
and Culver 2012). At the same time, some food industries have already explored
the use of green dyes obtained from microalgae as well as other pigments widely
marketed from these microorganisms (phycobilins from Spirulina; β-carotene from
Dunaliella; astaxanthin from Haematococcus) (D’Alessandro and Filho 2016; Matos
2017). However, these extracts are obtained from microalgae that present species
mostly of chlorophyll a and b, which equals, at the level of chemical constitution,
the extracts obtained from higher plants.
Independent of species of chlorophylls commercially consolidated other chlorophylls (chlorophyll c, d, and f ) and their derivative compounds, present exclusively
in microalgae, can be implemented as alternative sources for green natural pigments
considering the chemical stability of these compounds and their colour potential.
Due to the structural chemical characteristics, chlorophyll c species, for example,
indicated in the literature to be more stable and presents greater solubility in polar
matrices than chlorophylls a and b (Lanfer-Marquez and Sinnecker 2008; Zapata et al.
2011, Chen et al. 2018). Considering these aspects, a greater number of molecules
can be obtained to compose the green dyes class.