142
6 Carrageenans
Commercially, carrageenan is available either as refined carrageenan which is
assigned the E number E = 407 or as semi-refined carrageenan produced to high
standards which is referred to as PES assigned the E number E-407a (McHugh 2003).
Weiner et al. (2017) emphasized the difference between commercial carrageenan
used in food additives and other forms of carrageenan which have no commercial
applications in food but are used in other applications such as medical. The group
further highlighted that the difference in the molecular weight had significant effect
on the physicochemical and rheological properties of carrageenan and should therefore not be used interchangeably. Commercial carrageenan used as a food additive
is sulfated polysaccharide that has a average molecular weight between 200 and
800 kDa with alternating disaccharide repeating units of 1–3 alpha-d-galactose and
1–4 linked beta-d-galactose or 3,6 anhydrogalactose with sulfate groups attached to
some of the units at C2 or C4 depending on the type of galactan (3 main ones Iota,
kappa and lambda). The low molecular weight carrageenan which is extracted at
high temperature under low pH and has a molecular weight of less than 20–40 kDa
is referred to as degraded carrageenan of poligeenan. The significantly shorter chain
length and change in configuration due to low pH and high temperature of extraction result in a structure which does not share the typical attributes that characterize
carrageenan.
As of 2001, 42,930 tonnes of carrageenan was produced by the top 3 producers of
carrageenan in the world (McHugh 2003). Asia-Pacific contributed 2018 tonnes of
this, 9900 of this being PES grade and the rest being either gel or alcohol-precipitated
carrageenan. Europe contributed a total carrageenan production of 13,500 tonnes with
500 tonnes of this being PES and the rest refined carrageenan. The Americas produced
9150 tonnes; 1100 of this was PES grade, while the rest was refined carrageenan.
About half of the carrageenan produced is therefore PES grade with most of it coming
from the Asia-Pacific region.
Some of the companies producing carrageenans in different parts of the world
include Kelcco, Ingredients Solutions Inc, Shemberg Biotech Corporation, Marcel
Carrageenan Corporation, FMC Biopolymer, Degussa Texturant Systems, Danisco
Cultor, Rhodis Food, Gelymar S.A., CEAMSA, Hispanagar S A, Ina food Industry
Co. Ltd., Myeong Shin Chemical Ind. Co. Ltd., Soriano SA, Chuo Food Materials
Co. Ltd., Quest International Philippines Corp., FMC Corporation, Geltech Hayco
Inc., TBK Manufacturing Corp., Iberagar S.A., PT Gumindo Perkasa Industri, CV
Cahaya Cemerlang, PT Surya Indoalgas, P.T. Asia Sumber Laut Indonesia (McHugh
2003).
6.9 Conclusion
Carrageenan is a relatively well-explored aquatic biopolymer primarily sourced from
the aquatic environment with no reported terrestrial source; therefore, its availability
is highly reliant on the availability of red algae in the aquatic ecosystem. With a
potential yield of ~30% per dry mass of red algae, it can be considered a major algal
6 Carrageenans
Commercially, carrageenan is available either as refined carrageenan which is
assigned the E number E = 407 or as semi-refined carrageenan produced to high
standards which is referred to as PES assigned the E number E-407a (McHugh 2003).
Weiner et al. (2017) emphasized the difference between commercial carrageenan
used in food additives and other forms of carrageenan which have no commercial
applications in food but are used in other applications such as medical. The group
further highlighted that the difference in the molecular weight had significant effect
on the physicochemical and rheological properties of carrageenan and should therefore not be used interchangeably. Commercial carrageenan used as a food additive
is sulfated polysaccharide that has a average molecular weight between 200 and
800 kDa with alternating disaccharide repeating units of 1–3 alpha-d-galactose and
1–4 linked beta-d-galactose or 3,6 anhydrogalactose with sulfate groups attached to
some of the units at C2 or C4 depending on the type of galactan (3 main ones Iota,
kappa and lambda). The low molecular weight carrageenan which is extracted at
high temperature under low pH and has a molecular weight of less than 20–40 kDa
is referred to as degraded carrageenan of poligeenan. The significantly shorter chain
length and change in configuration due to low pH and high temperature of extraction result in a structure which does not share the typical attributes that characterize
carrageenan.
As of 2001, 42,930 tonnes of carrageenan was produced by the top 3 producers of
carrageenan in the world (McHugh 2003). Asia-Pacific contributed 2018 tonnes of
this, 9900 of this being PES grade and the rest being either gel or alcohol-precipitated
carrageenan. Europe contributed a total carrageenan production of 13,500 tonnes with
500 tonnes of this being PES and the rest refined carrageenan. The Americas produced
9150 tonnes; 1100 of this was PES grade, while the rest was refined carrageenan.
About half of the carrageenan produced is therefore PES grade with most of it coming
from the Asia-Pacific region.
Some of the companies producing carrageenans in different parts of the world
include Kelcco, Ingredients Solutions Inc, Shemberg Biotech Corporation, Marcel
Carrageenan Corporation, FMC Biopolymer, Degussa Texturant Systems, Danisco
Cultor, Rhodis Food, Gelymar S.A., CEAMSA, Hispanagar S A, Ina food Industry
Co. Ltd., Myeong Shin Chemical Ind. Co. Ltd., Soriano SA, Chuo Food Materials
Co. Ltd., Quest International Philippines Corp., FMC Corporation, Geltech Hayco
Inc., TBK Manufacturing Corp., Iberagar S.A., PT Gumindo Perkasa Industri, CV
Cahaya Cemerlang, PT Surya Indoalgas, P.T. Asia Sumber Laut Indonesia (McHugh
2003).
6.9 Conclusion
Carrageenan is a relatively well-explored aquatic biopolymer primarily sourced from
the aquatic environment with no reported terrestrial source; therefore, its availability
is highly reliant on the availability of red algae in the aquatic ecosystem. With a
potential yield of ~30% per dry mass of red algae, it can be considered a major algal