same time have large benefits for some stakeholders. Such species are generally
termed “conflict species” as they often lead to disputes around their management and
control (Zengeya et al. 2017). On the one hand, once there is a large enough market
for a species it is often difficult to enforce control. On the other hand, in many cases
some of the impacts can be avoided and risks mitigated with risk management
strategies. For example, keeping pets in escape-safe cages can ensure they do not
get introduced into natural areas and cause harm to native species. Similarly,
importing only males of certain species can (in most cases) prevent propagation
and therefore the establishment of the species in the new area, even should some
individuals escape. This issue is tackled with the requirement of permits for certain
species (Category 2 listed species under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations in
South Africa; although permits to conduct research or biological control tests can
be issued for work on taxa listed in other categories) and the development of permit
conditions that mitigate the risks of the species. Each species regulated under
national legislation would have gone through a thorough risk analysis process in
order to be listed (see above). Therefore permit applications for restricted activities
for some species mainly focus on risk management aspects including, for example,
the nature and location of the planned activity and the number and sex of individuals
to be used. This is similar to requirements for import permits for new alien species
(see above). These considerations should be detailed enough to cover risk related to
any of the activities involved, including for example transport from breeding facilities elsewhere. Permits already issued and refused for species listed as Category
2 under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations in South Africa are listed in Table 20.2.
20.2.4 Non-regulated Alien Species
Various other activities would benefit from having frameworks and processes in
place to prevent unintended negative consequences. This includes for example the
commercialisation of alien species present in the country but not (yet) regulated
under national legislation. At present, such species can be cultivated and traded
without restrictions under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations (although they are
subject to other regulations like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES). Given that propagule pressure plays
an important role in the establishment success of species, certain uses could enhance
the chances of some species becoming invasive and causing harm (e.g. Kumschick
et al. 2016). An example in South Africa to illustrate the potential issue is the “giant
flag” project (www.giantflag.co.za), to build a South African flag consisting of
colourful desert plants (including alien cacti). The alien cacti initially proposed to
be used for this project were not considered as a particularly high risk in South Africa
by the project co-ordinator, partly because of their main use as horticultural species
and the low propagule pressure related to their use. However, the proposed project
involves the planting of millions of cacti in their preferred habitat in South Africa,
which changes the risk of these species becoming invasive due to the sheer number
of individuals planted (Colautti et al. 2006).
588
S. Kumschick et al.
termed “conflict species” as they often lead to disputes around their management and
control (Zengeya et al. 2017). On the one hand, once there is a large enough market
for a species it is often difficult to enforce control. On the other hand, in many cases
some of the impacts can be avoided and risks mitigated with risk management
strategies. For example, keeping pets in escape-safe cages can ensure they do not
get introduced into natural areas and cause harm to native species. Similarly,
importing only males of certain species can (in most cases) prevent propagation
and therefore the establishment of the species in the new area, even should some
individuals escape. This issue is tackled with the requirement of permits for certain
species (Category 2 listed species under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations in
South Africa; although permits to conduct research or biological control tests can
be issued for work on taxa listed in other categories) and the development of permit
conditions that mitigate the risks of the species. Each species regulated under
national legislation would have gone through a thorough risk analysis process in
order to be listed (see above). Therefore permit applications for restricted activities
for some species mainly focus on risk management aspects including, for example,
the nature and location of the planned activity and the number and sex of individuals
to be used. This is similar to requirements for import permits for new alien species
(see above). These considerations should be detailed enough to cover risk related to
any of the activities involved, including for example transport from breeding facilities elsewhere. Permits already issued and refused for species listed as Category
2 under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations in South Africa are listed in Table 20.2.
20.2.4 Non-regulated Alien Species
Various other activities would benefit from having frameworks and processes in
place to prevent unintended negative consequences. This includes for example the
commercialisation of alien species present in the country but not (yet) regulated
under national legislation. At present, such species can be cultivated and traded
without restrictions under the NEM:BA A&IS Regulations (although they are
subject to other regulations like the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES). Given that propagule pressure plays
an important role in the establishment success of species, certain uses could enhance
the chances of some species becoming invasive and causing harm (e.g. Kumschick
et al. 2016). An example in South Africa to illustrate the potential issue is the “giant
flag” project (www.giantflag.co.za), to build a South African flag consisting of
colourful desert plants (including alien cacti). The alien cacti initially proposed to
be used for this project were not considered as a particularly high risk in South Africa
by the project co-ordinator, partly because of their main use as horticultural species
and the low propagule pressure related to their use. However, the proposed project
involves the planting of millions of cacti in their preferred habitat in South Africa,
which changes the risk of these species becoming invasive due to the sheer number
of individuals planted (Colautti et al. 2006).
588
S. Kumschick et al.