Bennett (2014) notes that there is a developed literature focusing on how fears of
invasive alien plants also expressed South African nationalism in its apartheid and
post-apartheid forms. In this regard there is a suggestion that a discourse around the
‘danger’ of invasive alien species in South Africa gained momentum in the late
1950s and early 1960s (Bennett 2014, citing Carruthers 2011) and that
“nationalism. . . provided justification for eradicating these . . .species”. Bennett
(2014) notes that Peretti (2010) takes this argument further by linking South African
interest in biological invasions in the 1980s with ideologies of apartheid that were
“concerned with separating the pure from impure” (see also van Wilgen 2020, Sect.
2.14).
18.5 Intentionally Introduced Invasive Species 1860–1935
(Post Union But Pre-independence)
18.5.1 Alien Trees as a Solution to Problems
With reference to the most recent review of biological invasions, included in the
25 invasive species with ‘severe impact’, van Wilgen and Wilson’s status report
(2018) identifies 1 freshwater fish (4%), 4 freshwater invertebrates (16%), 17 terrestrial and freshwater plants (68%) and 3 terrestrial invertebrates (12%). Although the
fact that plants make up the majority of species with severe impacts appears to align
with the historical weed focus which was followed up until 1934, what does not align
is the fact that included in the 17 terrestrial and freshwater plants are 11 tree species
(44% of total species with severe impact). The reason for this is simply that before
1935 the policy was that trees, especially invasive trees, were regarded as being a
solution rather than a problem.
According to Kruger and Bennett (2013, citing Barton 2002, Beinart 2003, Grove
1989, and Bennett 2010), the second half of the nineteenth century saw a number of
forestry enthusiasts in Southern Africa propagating the idea that tree-planting would
increase the amount of rain in dry areas and would improve streamflow. These
claims motivated white settlers in all four colonies to deliberately introduce alien
trees and to engage in tree-planting efforts to increase rainfall and soil fertility, slow
erosion, stop desertification and relieve or cure tropical diseases, such as malaria
(Kruger and Bennett 2013, citing Bennett 2010). Despite reservations based on
observations to the contrary, the belief that alien forests stopped erosion and
conserved water became and remained the official South African forest management
policy until the mid-1930s (Kruger and Bennett 2013, citing Beinart 2003). This
policy was reinforced by the findings of the Union-wide 1923 Drought Investigation
Commission which supported the idea that forests had a positive climatic and
hydrological influence (Kruger and Bennett 2013 citing Beinart 2003).
However, by the early 1930s this dogma was being formally challenged. For
example, in 1932 the Department of Forestry directly contradicted the belief that
18 Biological Invasion Policy and Legislation Development
527
invasive alien plants also expressed South African nationalism in its apartheid and
post-apartheid forms. In this regard there is a suggestion that a discourse around the
‘danger’ of invasive alien species in South Africa gained momentum in the late
1950s and early 1960s (Bennett 2014, citing Carruthers 2011) and that
“nationalism. . . provided justification for eradicating these . . .species”. Bennett
(2014) notes that Peretti (2010) takes this argument further by linking South African
interest in biological invasions in the 1980s with ideologies of apartheid that were
“concerned with separating the pure from impure” (see also van Wilgen 2020, Sect.
2.14).
18.5 Intentionally Introduced Invasive Species 1860–1935
(Post Union But Pre-independence)
18.5.1 Alien Trees as a Solution to Problems
With reference to the most recent review of biological invasions, included in the
25 invasive species with ‘severe impact’, van Wilgen and Wilson’s status report
(2018) identifies 1 freshwater fish (4%), 4 freshwater invertebrates (16%), 17 terrestrial and freshwater plants (68%) and 3 terrestrial invertebrates (12%). Although the
fact that plants make up the majority of species with severe impacts appears to align
with the historical weed focus which was followed up until 1934, what does not align
is the fact that included in the 17 terrestrial and freshwater plants are 11 tree species
(44% of total species with severe impact). The reason for this is simply that before
1935 the policy was that trees, especially invasive trees, were regarded as being a
solution rather than a problem.
According to Kruger and Bennett (2013, citing Barton 2002, Beinart 2003, Grove
1989, and Bennett 2010), the second half of the nineteenth century saw a number of
forestry enthusiasts in Southern Africa propagating the idea that tree-planting would
increase the amount of rain in dry areas and would improve streamflow. These
claims motivated white settlers in all four colonies to deliberately introduce alien
trees and to engage in tree-planting efforts to increase rainfall and soil fertility, slow
erosion, stop desertification and relieve or cure tropical diseases, such as malaria
(Kruger and Bennett 2013, citing Bennett 2010). Despite reservations based on
observations to the contrary, the belief that alien forests stopped erosion and
conserved water became and remained the official South African forest management
policy until the mid-1930s (Kruger and Bennett 2013, citing Beinart 2003). This
policy was reinforced by the findings of the Union-wide 1923 Drought Investigation
Commission which supported the idea that forests had a positive climatic and
hydrological influence (Kruger and Bennett 2013 citing Beinart 2003).
However, by the early 1930s this dogma was being formally challenged. For
example, in 1932 the Department of Forestry directly contradicted the belief that
18 Biological Invasion Policy and Legislation Development
527