12.2.2.2 Colonial Period (1650–1910)
The colonial period was characterised by waves of human immigration, with each
additional influx of immigrants bringing with them new alien taxa. At the end of the
fifteenth century, in an effort to discover a sea route from Europe to Asia, the
Portuguese circumnavigated the Cape of Good Hope (Davenport and Saunders
2000; Thompson 2000; Ross 2012). By the end of the sixteenth century this sea
route was used by merchant mariners from various European countries and ships
would regularly stop at the Cape Peninsula to obtain fresh water and barter with local
pastoralists for Sheep and Cattle (Thompson 2000; Ross 2012). Spurred by the high
sickness and mortality rates of sailors, caused by their limited shipboard diet, the
Dutch East India Company (the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC)
established a small, permanent settlement in the Cape in 1652 (Davenport and
Saunders 2000). The VOC intended to produce fresh fruit, vegetables and grains
for their passing ships (Karsten 1951), and thus many of the taxa introduced at the
time were for agriculture (Deacon 1986). However, plants were also introduced by
the VOC for medicinal purposes (Scott and Hewett 2008), including Scurvy Grass
(Cochlearia sp.), which was introduced in 1656 to treat scurvy, a condition affecting
many sailors because their shipboard diet lacked vitamin C (Karsten 1951).
According to Jan van Riebeeck’s (Commander of the Cape from 1652 to 1662)
journal and letters, approximately 100 plants were introduced and tested for cultivation in the Western Cape (Table 12.2). During this period, plants were also
introduced for horticultural purposes (Table 12.2) and, for example, the ornamental
plant Oenothera biennis (Common Evening Primrose) was introduced in 1772
(Henderson 2001; Bromilow 2010). Although the Dutch introduced relatively few
alien taxa (Fig. 12.5; also see Deacon 1986), these taxa originated from a wider range
of locations than previous introductions, including from Europe [e.g. Quercus robur
(English Oak) and Pinus pinaster (Cluster Pine)] and North America [e.g. Opuntia
ficus-indica (Mission Prickly Pear)] (Henderson 2006). See Measey et al. (2020,
Chap. 5, Sect. 5.3) for introductions of mammals and birds during this period.
During this period, transport infrastructure was limited to small streets in Cape
Town and tracks that led to restricted parts of the country (Mitchell 2014a). Extensive exploratory journeys were undertaken inland, but such movements were hindered by the country’s adverse geographical and topographic features [e.g. no
navigable rivers (Mitchell 2014a)]. As a consequence, introductions were limited
to the Western Cape (Deacon 1986), and there was probably little human-assisted
dispersal of alien taxa.
Globally, the rate at which alien taxa were introduced to new regions remained
low until the 1800s, when the industrial revolution, an increase in international trade,
and the colonisation of new regions by millions of Europeans, resulted in a steady
increase in the rate of introduction (Hulme 2009; Seebens et al. 2017). These global
socio-economic trends also influenced introductions in South Africa, and while the
rate of introduction increased slightly following the arrival of the Dutch, it began to
dramatically increase in the early 1800s when the British colonised the country
12 Pathways of Introduction and Dispersal
327
The colonial period was characterised by waves of human immigration, with each
additional influx of immigrants bringing with them new alien taxa. At the end of the
fifteenth century, in an effort to discover a sea route from Europe to Asia, the
Portuguese circumnavigated the Cape of Good Hope (Davenport and Saunders
2000; Thompson 2000; Ross 2012). By the end of the sixteenth century this sea
route was used by merchant mariners from various European countries and ships
would regularly stop at the Cape Peninsula to obtain fresh water and barter with local
pastoralists for Sheep and Cattle (Thompson 2000; Ross 2012). Spurred by the high
sickness and mortality rates of sailors, caused by their limited shipboard diet, the
Dutch East India Company (the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC)
established a small, permanent settlement in the Cape in 1652 (Davenport and
Saunders 2000). The VOC intended to produce fresh fruit, vegetables and grains
for their passing ships (Karsten 1951), and thus many of the taxa introduced at the
time were for agriculture (Deacon 1986). However, plants were also introduced by
the VOC for medicinal purposes (Scott and Hewett 2008), including Scurvy Grass
(Cochlearia sp.), which was introduced in 1656 to treat scurvy, a condition affecting
many sailors because their shipboard diet lacked vitamin C (Karsten 1951).
According to Jan van Riebeeck’s (Commander of the Cape from 1652 to 1662)
journal and letters, approximately 100 plants were introduced and tested for cultivation in the Western Cape (Table 12.2). During this period, plants were also
introduced for horticultural purposes (Table 12.2) and, for example, the ornamental
plant Oenothera biennis (Common Evening Primrose) was introduced in 1772
(Henderson 2001; Bromilow 2010). Although the Dutch introduced relatively few
alien taxa (Fig. 12.5; also see Deacon 1986), these taxa originated from a wider range
of locations than previous introductions, including from Europe [e.g. Quercus robur
(English Oak) and Pinus pinaster (Cluster Pine)] and North America [e.g. Opuntia
ficus-indica (Mission Prickly Pear)] (Henderson 2006). See Measey et al. (2020,
Chap. 5, Sect. 5.3) for introductions of mammals and birds during this period.
During this period, transport infrastructure was limited to small streets in Cape
Town and tracks that led to restricted parts of the country (Mitchell 2014a). Extensive exploratory journeys were undertaken inland, but such movements were hindered by the country’s adverse geographical and topographic features [e.g. no
navigable rivers (Mitchell 2014a)]. As a consequence, introductions were limited
to the Western Cape (Deacon 1986), and there was probably little human-assisted
dispersal of alien taxa.
Globally, the rate at which alien taxa were introduced to new regions remained
low until the 1800s, when the industrial revolution, an increase in international trade,
and the colonisation of new regions by millions of Europeans, resulted in a steady
increase in the rate of introduction (Hulme 2009; Seebens et al. 2017). These global
socio-economic trends also influenced introductions in South Africa, and while the
rate of introduction increased slightly following the arrival of the Dutch, it began to
dramatically increase in the early 1800s when the British colonised the country
12 Pathways of Introduction and Dispersal
327