362
Lastly, the percentage of water consumption or withdrawal associated with thermal power plant operations in comparison with total regional water availability or
human appropriation is categorized as a relative–extensive metric.
Continuing this discussion of power plant water use at the meso/macro scale,
another example of the use of metrics to achieve two different strategic objectives is
exemplified by the differential use of two relative–extensive metrics. Environmental
advocates tend to focus on the fraction of total water withdrawal
2
in the USA for
thermal power plant cooling (~45%), while electric utilities and their industry organizations tend to emphasize the proportion of total water consumption
3
for thermal
power plant operations (∼3–4%) (Solley et al. 2009, Maupin et al. 2014, Diehl &
Harris 2014). One percentage seems “large” while the other seems “small.” This
example shows that terminology referring to metrics with different physical and
mathematical assumptions is important. This is one reason why one should not use
the word “use” to refer to water but instead specifically use words such as “consume” or “withdraw.”
13.3 Case Study Texas Drought of 2011
13.3.1 Background
As an example of the FEW nexus and the exacerbation of the interdependencies
therein, we summarize the after-effects from the 2011 drought in Texas. From late
2010 and throughout most of 2011, Texas received the lowest amount of rainfall over
12 months ever recorded (Nielsen-Gammon 2011). Further, that year was also the
hottest on record, with many parts of the state experiencing a record number of
100 + °F days. Consequently, water flow in some rivers eventually became so low that
it was insufficient for all water users to receive the surface water legally allotted to
them, and subsequent decisions impacted the food and energy sectors (Fig. 13.3).
Water law in Texas is similar to that much of the western USA, with surface
water rights based upon the concept of prior appropriation (Texas Water Development
Board. n.d.). Surface water rights granted under the prior appropriation doctrine
have the following characteristics:
• An assigned priority date, which determines the holder’s priority for available
water. Regardless of the priority date, whenever there is less water than is needed
to satisfy all water rights in a basin, each appropriated right is subordinate to
domestic and livestock users for the use of the available water.
2 Water withdrawal refers to water that is removed from the local environment for human purposes
without consideration of whether that water is returned to the local environment in liquid form.
3 Water consumption refers to the difference between water withdrawal from the local environment and the quantity of water that is returned to the local environment in liquid form. Generally,
water consumption is due to evaporation and evapotranspiration or its embodiment in some product
(e.g., food).
M. Carbajales-Dale and C. W. King
Lastly, the percentage of water consumption or withdrawal associated with thermal power plant operations in comparison with total regional water availability or
human appropriation is categorized as a relative–extensive metric.
Continuing this discussion of power plant water use at the meso/macro scale,
another example of the use of metrics to achieve two different strategic objectives is
exemplified by the differential use of two relative–extensive metrics. Environmental
advocates tend to focus on the fraction of total water withdrawal
2
in the USA for
thermal power plant cooling (~45%), while electric utilities and their industry organizations tend to emphasize the proportion of total water consumption
3
for thermal
power plant operations (∼3–4%) (Solley et al. 2009, Maupin et al. 2014, Diehl &
Harris 2014). One percentage seems “large” while the other seems “small.” This
example shows that terminology referring to metrics with different physical and
mathematical assumptions is important. This is one reason why one should not use
the word “use” to refer to water but instead specifically use words such as “consume” or “withdraw.”
13.3 Case Study Texas Drought of 2011
13.3.1 Background
As an example of the FEW nexus and the exacerbation of the interdependencies
therein, we summarize the after-effects from the 2011 drought in Texas. From late
2010 and throughout most of 2011, Texas received the lowest amount of rainfall over
12 months ever recorded (Nielsen-Gammon 2011). Further, that year was also the
hottest on record, with many parts of the state experiencing a record number of
100 + °F days. Consequently, water flow in some rivers eventually became so low that
it was insufficient for all water users to receive the surface water legally allotted to
them, and subsequent decisions impacted the food and energy sectors (Fig. 13.3).
Water law in Texas is similar to that much of the western USA, with surface
water rights based upon the concept of prior appropriation (Texas Water Development
Board. n.d.). Surface water rights granted under the prior appropriation doctrine
have the following characteristics:
• An assigned priority date, which determines the holder’s priority for available
water. Regardless of the priority date, whenever there is less water than is needed
to satisfy all water rights in a basin, each appropriated right is subordinate to
domestic and livestock users for the use of the available water.
2 Water withdrawal refers to water that is removed from the local environment for human purposes
without consideration of whether that water is returned to the local environment in liquid form.
3 Water consumption refers to the difference between water withdrawal from the local environment and the quantity of water that is returned to the local environment in liquid form. Generally,
water consumption is due to evaporation and evapotranspiration or its embodiment in some product
(e.g., food).
M. Carbajales-Dale and C. W. King