305
Production of oil and natural gas (53% world TPE in 2015), requires significant
water usage. In particular, the techniques of enhanced oil recovery and hydraulic
fracturing are water-intensive. These techniques are only viable in locations where
sufficient water is available. Refining of petroleum and processing of natural gas
also require considerable water and are built with water available being one of several important factors. Coal production (28% of world TPE in 2015) uses water for
dust suppression and cleaning, among other uses.
Thermoelectric power plants, which provided over 77% of the world’s electricity in 2015 (Coal: 39%; natural gas: 23%; oil: 4%; and nuclear: 11%) use significant
water for cooling. For example, an estimated 45% of total water withdrawals in the
USA in 2010 were used for thermoelectric power plants; 38% of total freshwater
withdrawals. Although nearly all of the water withdrawal is returned after use, availability of water is a significant factor in siting thermoelectric power plants.
Consequently, of the production and transformation of fossil fuels will be
impacted by changes in water availability or greater competition for water for other
uses because of climate change raises significant challenges, exacerbated during
times of drought.
Hydropower, which provided over 16% of the world’s electricity in 2015 and
2.5% of TPE, is inherently susceptible to variations in total water resources and
seasonal fluctuations related to rainfall cycles. Drought conditions in the western
USA reduced hydroelectricity generation each year from 2011 (7.8% of US generation) to 2015 (6.1%) until a strong “El Niño” warming phase in the Pacific Ocean
brought heavy rains in 2016–2017 resulting in 2 years of increased hydroelectric
power generation (7.5% in 2017). Areas with greater total precipitation may see an
increase in hydropower if the additional precipitation can be captured. However,
higher average temperatures will also result in high evaporation of water stored in
reservoirs behind hydroelectric dams.
Seasonal rainfall in North America results in hydropower generation peaks in
late spring and minimums in early fall. In areas where water is stored in the snowpack, a warmer climate will result in quicker melting and move generation peaks
forward. Hydropower in different parts of the world will be affected according to
local conditions and climate change impacts.
About 10–15% of bioenergy crops currently being utilized (corn, soy, sugar
cane, and rapeseed) typically have irrigation demands. In addition, there is water
usage in the conversion process from feedstock to biofuels.
The importance of local topography on climate effects will be particularly crucial to the knock-on impacts of water on energy. This will be important both through
the availability of water resources and through impacts on facilities located on the
coastline and at risk of flooding related to sea level rise.
There is also a cross-cutting impact of climate change that should be recognized
first—the potential for climate change to forcing population movements through
slowly building stresses or extreme weather events.
In all of the areas, potential increases in competition for water will raise important issues of water rights (see Sect. 5.2.3, Chap. 8, and Sect. 20.3).
11 Climate Change
Production of oil and natural gas (53% world TPE in 2015), requires significant
water usage. In particular, the techniques of enhanced oil recovery and hydraulic
fracturing are water-intensive. These techniques are only viable in locations where
sufficient water is available. Refining of petroleum and processing of natural gas
also require considerable water and are built with water available being one of several important factors. Coal production (28% of world TPE in 2015) uses water for
dust suppression and cleaning, among other uses.
Thermoelectric power plants, which provided over 77% of the world’s electricity in 2015 (Coal: 39%; natural gas: 23%; oil: 4%; and nuclear: 11%) use significant
water for cooling. For example, an estimated 45% of total water withdrawals in the
USA in 2010 were used for thermoelectric power plants; 38% of total freshwater
withdrawals. Although nearly all of the water withdrawal is returned after use, availability of water is a significant factor in siting thermoelectric power plants.
Consequently, of the production and transformation of fossil fuels will be
impacted by changes in water availability or greater competition for water for other
uses because of climate change raises significant challenges, exacerbated during
times of drought.
Hydropower, which provided over 16% of the world’s electricity in 2015 and
2.5% of TPE, is inherently susceptible to variations in total water resources and
seasonal fluctuations related to rainfall cycles. Drought conditions in the western
USA reduced hydroelectricity generation each year from 2011 (7.8% of US generation) to 2015 (6.1%) until a strong “El Niño” warming phase in the Pacific Ocean
brought heavy rains in 2016–2017 resulting in 2 years of increased hydroelectric
power generation (7.5% in 2017). Areas with greater total precipitation may see an
increase in hydropower if the additional precipitation can be captured. However,
higher average temperatures will also result in high evaporation of water stored in
reservoirs behind hydroelectric dams.
Seasonal rainfall in North America results in hydropower generation peaks in
late spring and minimums in early fall. In areas where water is stored in the snowpack, a warmer climate will result in quicker melting and move generation peaks
forward. Hydropower in different parts of the world will be affected according to
local conditions and climate change impacts.
About 10–15% of bioenergy crops currently being utilized (corn, soy, sugar
cane, and rapeseed) typically have irrigation demands. In addition, there is water
usage in the conversion process from feedstock to biofuels.
The importance of local topography on climate effects will be particularly crucial to the knock-on impacts of water on energy. This will be important both through
the availability of water resources and through impacts on facilities located on the
coastline and at risk of flooding related to sea level rise.
There is also a cross-cutting impact of climate change that should be recognized
first—the potential for climate change to forcing population movements through
slowly building stresses or extreme weather events.
In all of the areas, potential increases in competition for water will raise important issues of water rights (see Sect. 5.2.3, Chap. 8, and Sect. 20.3).
11 Climate Change