162
cheap food to developing nations and economically damaging the agriculture sector
by lowering the cost of domestically produced products. The USA and the European
Union (because of its Common Agricultural Policy “CAP”) were the chief users of
such policies and GATT exemptions and were the most common litigants in GATT
disputes.
While GATT negotiations attempted to address the exceptions for agriculture
throughout its first forty years, it was not until the Uruguay Round (1986–1994) that
serious changes were advanced by a group of agricultural exporting nations known
as the Cairns Group. This effort, ultimately led to the adoption of the Agreement
on Agriculture (1995). We will return to the Agreement on Agriculture in Sect. 6.5.
Since 2001, the WTO has been facilitating the Doha Development Round of
trade negotiations with a focus on the needs of developing nations. In 2008, negotiations stalled over disagreement between developed nations and large developing
nations about agricultural subsidies.
While there may be sufficient food for the global population, there remains tremendous inequity where some populations struggle with obesity while others starve.
Thus, world trade in food supplies has a long way to go to facilitate food security
for all.
6.2.3.2 Energy
Energy was not a priority in early GATT negotiations. This was likely connected to
the fact that energy trading was dominated by a combination of a small number of
large multinational corporations and state-owned corporations.
Following the first oil crisis of 1973, the member nations of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) established the International
Energy Agency (IEA) to provide data and analysis to help them coordinate a collective response to such crisis. Today the IEA “examines the full spectrum of energy
issues including oil, gas and coal supply and demand, renewable energy technologies, electricity markets, energy efficiency, access to energy, demand side management and much more. Through its work, the IEA advocates policies that will
enhance the reliability, affordability and sustainability of energy in its 30 member
countries and beyond.” (IEA).
Following the political transitions in Eastern Europe (1989–1991) that marked
the end of the Cold War, the significance of the energy resources of those countries
to those in Western Europe resulted in the adoption of the European Energy Charter
(1991) which provided a political framework for developing a treaty. An Energy
Charter Treaty (ECT) was adopted in 1994 and entered into force in 1998. A subsequent International Energy Charter was adopted in 2015 by 64 states to provide the
framework process to develop a larger treaty. The Treaty addresses:
• the protection of foreign investments;
• non-discrimination in trading conditions (based on WTO rules);
• ensuring stable movements of energy across international borders;
A. Belinskij et al.
cheap food to developing nations and economically damaging the agriculture sector
by lowering the cost of domestically produced products. The USA and the European
Union (because of its Common Agricultural Policy “CAP”) were the chief users of
such policies and GATT exemptions and were the most common litigants in GATT
disputes.
While GATT negotiations attempted to address the exceptions for agriculture
throughout its first forty years, it was not until the Uruguay Round (1986–1994) that
serious changes were advanced by a group of agricultural exporting nations known
as the Cairns Group. This effort, ultimately led to the adoption of the Agreement
on Agriculture (1995). We will return to the Agreement on Agriculture in Sect. 6.5.
Since 2001, the WTO has been facilitating the Doha Development Round of
trade negotiations with a focus on the needs of developing nations. In 2008, negotiations stalled over disagreement between developed nations and large developing
nations about agricultural subsidies.
While there may be sufficient food for the global population, there remains tremendous inequity where some populations struggle with obesity while others starve.
Thus, world trade in food supplies has a long way to go to facilitate food security
for all.
6.2.3.2 Energy
Energy was not a priority in early GATT negotiations. This was likely connected to
the fact that energy trading was dominated by a combination of a small number of
large multinational corporations and state-owned corporations.
Following the first oil crisis of 1973, the member nations of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) established the International
Energy Agency (IEA) to provide data and analysis to help them coordinate a collective response to such crisis. Today the IEA “examines the full spectrum of energy
issues including oil, gas and coal supply and demand, renewable energy technologies, electricity markets, energy efficiency, access to energy, demand side management and much more. Through its work, the IEA advocates policies that will
enhance the reliability, affordability and sustainability of energy in its 30 member
countries and beyond.” (IEA).
Following the political transitions in Eastern Europe (1989–1991) that marked
the end of the Cold War, the significance of the energy resources of those countries
to those in Western Europe resulted in the adoption of the European Energy Charter
(1991) which provided a political framework for developing a treaty. An Energy
Charter Treaty (ECT) was adopted in 1994 and entered into force in 1998. A subsequent International Energy Charter was adopted in 2015 by 64 states to provide the
framework process to develop a larger treaty. The Treaty addresses:
• the protection of foreign investments;
• non-discrimination in trading conditions (based on WTO rules);
• ensuring stable movements of energy across international borders;
A. Belinskij et al.