110
6.1 Introduction
Globally, wheat is the most widely cultivated cereal crop, it is the largest contributor
with nearly 30% of the world grain production and it contributes with 50% of the
world grain trade (Sharma et al. 2015). Wheat is a very important crop in the diet of
the Egyptian, where it is the main crop used in bread making. Egypt has the highest
per capita consumption of wheat in the world. In 1960s, Egyptians consumed annually less than 110 kg per capita of wheat. In the 1980s, the wheat supply was enough
to provide 175 kg per capita, compared to a world average of less than 60–75 kg per
capita (Metz 1990). In 2012, Egyptians, on average, consume up to 200 kg of wheat
per capita per year (Aegic 2015). As a result, Egypt is by far the largest importer of
wheat globally. Wheat production-consumption is continuously increasing year
after year as a result of population increase. Self-sufficiency of wheat declines from
51% in 2013 to 48% in 2016. This decline is a result of rise in wheat consumption
by annual population increase, which approach 2.0 million/year (Mansour 2012).
The Egyptian wheat cultivars are suited to be grown throughout Egypt; in the old
lands as well as in the new areas (See Chap. 2 for details on agricultural lands classification). The cultivated area of wheat is the highest among the winter crops,
where it competes with Egyptian clover and most recently with sugar beet. Most of
the wheat cultivated area lies in the Nile Delta with about 57% of the total area, and
smaller areas in Middle and Upper Egypt with about 18 and 17%, respectively. In
the old lands, wheat is cultivated in basins or on furrows under surface irrigation.
Surface irrigation system has low water application efficiency, namely 50–60% led
to many adverse consequences on the soils besides water loss to ground water. It
also resulted in ineffective use of applied nitrogen owing to poor aeration, leaching
and volatilization losses. Application of high amount of irrigation water results in
greater crop lodging, lower water use efficiency, and crusting of the soil surface
(Majeed et al. 2015).
On the other hand, these adverse consequences could be minimized by cultivation on raised beds. Irrigation water saving under raised beds cultivation was
reported to be 15–30% (Abouelenin et al. 2009, 2011; Karrou et al. 2012; Khalil and
Abouelenin 2012; Zohry et al. 2019). Crops cultivated on raised beds attain higher
productivity by 15–20%, compared to the traditional cultivation in basins or on furrows (Ahmad et al. 2009; Hobbs et al. 2000; Abouelenin et al. 2009, 2010; Majeed
et al. 2015). Improved water and fertilizer use efficiency was also reported under
raised beds cultivation (Hobbs et al. 2000; Sing et al. 2010; Karrou et al. 2012;
Majeed et al. 2015). Improved in soil quality (Limon-Ortega et al. 2002), enhanced
root growth, (Dey et al. 2015), and increased microbial functional groups and
enzyme activities, increased in availability of essential crop nutrients (Zhang et al.
2012) are other benefits could be obtained under raised beds cultivation. Thus, cultivation on raised beds could be used as a water saving strategy under surface irrigation in Egypt to face water scarcity, application of deficit irrigation instead of full
irrigation to crops grown on raised beds can be used to increase the productivity of
unit of irrigation water. Deficit irrigation is an irrigation practice characterized by
A. E.-H. Zohry and S. Ouda
6.1 Introduction
Globally, wheat is the most widely cultivated cereal crop, it is the largest contributor
with nearly 30% of the world grain production and it contributes with 50% of the
world grain trade (Sharma et al. 2015). Wheat is a very important crop in the diet of
the Egyptian, where it is the main crop used in bread making. Egypt has the highest
per capita consumption of wheat in the world. In 1960s, Egyptians consumed annually less than 110 kg per capita of wheat. In the 1980s, the wheat supply was enough
to provide 175 kg per capita, compared to a world average of less than 60–75 kg per
capita (Metz 1990). In 2012, Egyptians, on average, consume up to 200 kg of wheat
per capita per year (Aegic 2015). As a result, Egypt is by far the largest importer of
wheat globally. Wheat production-consumption is continuously increasing year
after year as a result of population increase. Self-sufficiency of wheat declines from
51% in 2013 to 48% in 2016. This decline is a result of rise in wheat consumption
by annual population increase, which approach 2.0 million/year (Mansour 2012).
The Egyptian wheat cultivars are suited to be grown throughout Egypt; in the old
lands as well as in the new areas (See Chap. 2 for details on agricultural lands classification). The cultivated area of wheat is the highest among the winter crops,
where it competes with Egyptian clover and most recently with sugar beet. Most of
the wheat cultivated area lies in the Nile Delta with about 57% of the total area, and
smaller areas in Middle and Upper Egypt with about 18 and 17%, respectively. In
the old lands, wheat is cultivated in basins or on furrows under surface irrigation.
Surface irrigation system has low water application efficiency, namely 50–60% led
to many adverse consequences on the soils besides water loss to ground water. It
also resulted in ineffective use of applied nitrogen owing to poor aeration, leaching
and volatilization losses. Application of high amount of irrigation water results in
greater crop lodging, lower water use efficiency, and crusting of the soil surface
(Majeed et al. 2015).
On the other hand, these adverse consequences could be minimized by cultivation on raised beds. Irrigation water saving under raised beds cultivation was
reported to be 15–30% (Abouelenin et al. 2009, 2011; Karrou et al. 2012; Khalil and
Abouelenin 2012; Zohry et al. 2019). Crops cultivated on raised beds attain higher
productivity by 15–20%, compared to the traditional cultivation in basins or on furrows (Ahmad et al. 2009; Hobbs et al. 2000; Abouelenin et al. 2009, 2010; Majeed
et al. 2015). Improved water and fertilizer use efficiency was also reported under
raised beds cultivation (Hobbs et al. 2000; Sing et al. 2010; Karrou et al. 2012;
Majeed et al. 2015). Improved in soil quality (Limon-Ortega et al. 2002), enhanced
root growth, (Dey et al. 2015), and increased microbial functional groups and
enzyme activities, increased in availability of essential crop nutrients (Zhang et al.
2012) are other benefits could be obtained under raised beds cultivation. Thus, cultivation on raised beds could be used as a water saving strategy under surface irrigation in Egypt to face water scarcity, application of deficit irrigation instead of full
irrigation to crops grown on raised beds can be used to increase the productivity of
unit of irrigation water. Deficit irrigation is an irrigation practice characterized by
A. E.-H. Zohry and S. Ouda