222
sites leads to their bioaccumulation in the body tissues and biomagnification through
the food chain (Wong et al. 2007).
12.2 Trends in E-waste Generation
With a largely growing competitive global market of electronic and electrical products and their shorter useful life, E-waste has become a worldwide phenomenon
with a growth rate of 5–10% per year (Zheng et al. 2013; Sthiannopkao and Wong
2013). Estimates provided by solving the E-waste problem (StEP) initiative
predicted global production of E-waste in the world to rise from 49 million tonnes
during 2012 to around 65.4 million tonnes till 2017 (UNU 2013). Higher generation
rates and potential hazardous impacts on the environment and human health caused
by associated toxic chemicals during recycling and disposal have made sustainable
E-waste management a major environmental concern and challenge (Leung et al.
2007; Wu et al. 2008; Luo et al. 2009). Majority of the E-waste from developed
world, i.e. the USA, Britain and Europe, is transferred to developing nations like
China, India and Nigeria (Chi et al. 2011). E-waste management is an issue dealt
differently in terms of policies and methodologies adopted in both developed and
developing countries of the world. Developed countries have expensive, fairly
regulated and well-devised collection systems, clean recovery technologies such as
disassembly stations, and plasma furnaces installed to prevent toxic emissions from
E-waste recycling; however still, the majority of the European and North American
E-waste remains unrecycled (Barba-Gutiérrez et al. 2008). On the other hand, most
of the developing countries (like China, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Nigeria, etc.) in absence of proper laws, policies and regulatory guidelines resort to
primitive, cheap and crude recycling practices such as smouldering, acid baths,
crushing, open incineration, etc. at the informal recycling facilities to manage
E-waste causing severe damage to the environment and human health (Widmer
et al. 2005; Zheng et al. 2013; Yoshida et al. 2016). During the year 2010, developed
countries like Japan and the European Union generated 4 and 8.9 million tonnes of
domestic E-waste, respectively (Zoeteman et al. 2010), and around 400 million
electronic items become obsolete in the USA alone per year. According to Widmer
et al. (2005), in the developed countries, E-waste may constitute 8% by volume of
municipal solid waste. Receiving more than 70% of the E-waste in the world and
also being its second largest producer, China is likely to overtake the USA’s E-waste
generation by the year 2020 (Hicks et al. 2005; UNEP 2007). It is predicted that by
2030, developing countries will discard approximately 600 million personal
computers per year which is twice the number that will be discarded by the developed
nations, i.e. 300 million (Yu et al. 2010). In economically advanced Southeast Asian
countries like Malaysia and Thailand, E-waste generation was estimated to be
6–10 kg per capita during 2012, whereas it ranged from 2 to 3 kg per capita for
middle-income countries like the Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia (Yoshida et al.
2016).
B. Vaish et al.
sites leads to their bioaccumulation in the body tissues and biomagnification through
the food chain (Wong et al. 2007).
12.2 Trends in E-waste Generation
With a largely growing competitive global market of electronic and electrical products and their shorter useful life, E-waste has become a worldwide phenomenon
with a growth rate of 5–10% per year (Zheng et al. 2013; Sthiannopkao and Wong
2013). Estimates provided by solving the E-waste problem (StEP) initiative
predicted global production of E-waste in the world to rise from 49 million tonnes
during 2012 to around 65.4 million tonnes till 2017 (UNU 2013). Higher generation
rates and potential hazardous impacts on the environment and human health caused
by associated toxic chemicals during recycling and disposal have made sustainable
E-waste management a major environmental concern and challenge (Leung et al.
2007; Wu et al. 2008; Luo et al. 2009). Majority of the E-waste from developed
world, i.e. the USA, Britain and Europe, is transferred to developing nations like
China, India and Nigeria (Chi et al. 2011). E-waste management is an issue dealt
differently in terms of policies and methodologies adopted in both developed and
developing countries of the world. Developed countries have expensive, fairly
regulated and well-devised collection systems, clean recovery technologies such as
disassembly stations, and plasma furnaces installed to prevent toxic emissions from
E-waste recycling; however still, the majority of the European and North American
E-waste remains unrecycled (Barba-Gutiérrez et al. 2008). On the other hand, most
of the developing countries (like China, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Nigeria, etc.) in absence of proper laws, policies and regulatory guidelines resort to
primitive, cheap and crude recycling practices such as smouldering, acid baths,
crushing, open incineration, etc. at the informal recycling facilities to manage
E-waste causing severe damage to the environment and human health (Widmer
et al. 2005; Zheng et al. 2013; Yoshida et al. 2016). During the year 2010, developed
countries like Japan and the European Union generated 4 and 8.9 million tonnes of
domestic E-waste, respectively (Zoeteman et al. 2010), and around 400 million
electronic items become obsolete in the USA alone per year. According to Widmer
et al. (2005), in the developed countries, E-waste may constitute 8% by volume of
municipal solid waste. Receiving more than 70% of the E-waste in the world and
also being its second largest producer, China is likely to overtake the USA’s E-waste
generation by the year 2020 (Hicks et al. 2005; UNEP 2007). It is predicted that by
2030, developing countries will discard approximately 600 million personal
computers per year which is twice the number that will be discarded by the developed
nations, i.e. 300 million (Yu et al. 2010). In economically advanced Southeast Asian
countries like Malaysia and Thailand, E-waste generation was estimated to be
6–10 kg per capita during 2012, whereas it ranged from 2 to 3 kg per capita for
middle-income countries like the Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia (Yoshida et al.
2016).
B. Vaish et al.