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end of life of these devices. Some of the most important methods developed for this
purpose include pyrometallurgical (pyrolysis), hydrometallurgical (acid leaching),
and biotechnological technologies (microbial leaching).
Keywords LED industry · LED elements/metals · Recovery chain · Recycling ·
Recovery/reclamation process · E-waste
9.1 Introduction
Originally used as an indicator light, the light-emitting diode (LED) is an increasingly used technology today, ubiquitously present in homes, industries, and products. LEDs consume comparatively less energy than other devices, at the same time
that they have a longer useful life. LEDs are found in several electrical and electronic devices, lamps, bulbs, and even automobiles.
LEDs have been known for over half a century and were originally used in simple applications such as indicator lights in general (Teixeira et al. 2016). However,
a new era in the lighting industry dawned with the development of blue LEDs,
which have longer life cycles and are produced at reduced costs. Today, blue LEDs
have replaced conventional lighting devices (Teixeira et al. 2016).
A multinational bulb company estimates that lighting holds a 20% share of the
global energy market, or 2651 TWh/year, of which 70% is consumed by poor efficiency bulbs. As solid-state devices, LEDs are developed based on the properties of
inorganic semiconductors that emit light by electroluminescence. Apart from the
fact that LEDs do not include mercury, these devices are five times as efficient compared with incandescent lights. Another advantage is that they have longer useful
lives (OSRAM 2009).
Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is defined as a device that requires
electrical current or a magnetic field to work or that generates, transfers, or converts
electrical current into a magnetic field. In turn, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) includes all products, parts, and components of electrical and electronic equipment post-use (Carvalho and Xavier 2014). Therefore, LED bulbs and
lighting fixtures fit in the electrical and electronic equipment category since they
need a printed circuit board (PCB). These lighting devices are considered lighting
electronic equipment in Annex I, Directive 2012/19/EU.
LED waste is formed by several materials, several of which contain a variety of
toxic substances that may contaminate the environment and pose hazards to human
health if not properly managed (Kiddee et al. 2013). However, if on the one hand
waste electrical and electronic equipment represents a considerable environmental
liability, on the other they stand as a commercial alternative whose reverse logistics
has to be investigated (Carvalho and Xavier 2014).
The evolution of LED technology has led to a longer useful life of these devices,
reducing the demand due to replacement. However, the quality of the original product and the use customers make of it affect the actual useful life of LEDs (Gassmann
et al. 2016). Quality of these products may be affected by price adjustment due to
E. C. A. dos Santos et al.
end of life of these devices. Some of the most important methods developed for this
purpose include pyrometallurgical (pyrolysis), hydrometallurgical (acid leaching),
and biotechnological technologies (microbial leaching).
Keywords LED industry · LED elements/metals · Recovery chain · Recycling ·
Recovery/reclamation process · E-waste
9.1 Introduction
Originally used as an indicator light, the light-emitting diode (LED) is an increasingly used technology today, ubiquitously present in homes, industries, and products. LEDs consume comparatively less energy than other devices, at the same time
that they have a longer useful life. LEDs are found in several electrical and electronic devices, lamps, bulbs, and even automobiles.
LEDs have been known for over half a century and were originally used in simple applications such as indicator lights in general (Teixeira et al. 2016). However,
a new era in the lighting industry dawned with the development of blue LEDs,
which have longer life cycles and are produced at reduced costs. Today, blue LEDs
have replaced conventional lighting devices (Teixeira et al. 2016).
A multinational bulb company estimates that lighting holds a 20% share of the
global energy market, or 2651 TWh/year, of which 70% is consumed by poor efficiency bulbs. As solid-state devices, LEDs are developed based on the properties of
inorganic semiconductors that emit light by electroluminescence. Apart from the
fact that LEDs do not include mercury, these devices are five times as efficient compared with incandescent lights. Another advantage is that they have longer useful
lives (OSRAM 2009).
Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is defined as a device that requires
electrical current or a magnetic field to work or that generates, transfers, or converts
electrical current into a magnetic field. In turn, waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) includes all products, parts, and components of electrical and electronic equipment post-use (Carvalho and Xavier 2014). Therefore, LED bulbs and
lighting fixtures fit in the electrical and electronic equipment category since they
need a printed circuit board (PCB). These lighting devices are considered lighting
electronic equipment in Annex I, Directive 2012/19/EU.
LED waste is formed by several materials, several of which contain a variety of
toxic substances that may contaminate the environment and pose hazards to human
health if not properly managed (Kiddee et al. 2013). However, if on the one hand
waste electrical and electronic equipment represents a considerable environmental
liability, on the other they stand as a commercial alternative whose reverse logistics
has to be investigated (Carvalho and Xavier 2014).
The evolution of LED technology has led to a longer useful life of these devices,
reducing the demand due to replacement. However, the quality of the original product and the use customers make of it affect the actual useful life of LEDs (Gassmann
et al. 2016). Quality of these products may be affected by price adjustment due to
E. C. A. dos Santos et al.