et al. 2010; Lam et al. 2012). The above mechanisms suggest some important
linkages between SDGs in the context of traditional biomass fuel use, including
especially SDG1, 2, 3, 5 and 7.
In urban areas of SSA, charcoal remains the fuel of choice although of course it is
sourced from rural areas (Sect. 2.1). Even though charcoal supply is smaller compared to firewood, charcoal production in SSA may be unsustainable or “nonrenewable” and contribute to net GHG emissions, especially in eastern Africa (Bailis
et al. 2015). About 20% of harvested woodfuel in SSA (which often involves cutting
live hardwood trees) is converted to charcoal (IRENA 2015). This has led to
deforestation and land degradation around densely populated peri-urban and urban
areas (Ndegwa et al. 2016; Kiruki et al. 2017; Jagger and Kittner 2017). Inefficiencies across the charcoal supply chains and the tendency to use whole trees for
charcoal production result in much higher wood consumption compared to direct
fuelwood use (World Bank 2009; Smeets et al. 2012; Chidumayo and Gumbo 2013).
Furthermore, fuel combustion in inefficient stoves and charcoal kilns contributes
significantly to outdoor air pollution and GHG emissions (Shindell et al. 2012;
Anenberg et al. 2013; Bailis et al. 2003).
2 The above mechanisms suggest important
linkages between multiple SDGs in the context of traditional biomass use, including
SDG 7, 12, 13 and 15.
However, it is difficult to halt charcoal production due to the lack of alternative
livelihoods across the value/supply chain and/or the affordability of other fuels by
users (World Bank 2009; Zulu 2010; Smith et al. 2015; Taylor et al. 2019). So far,
the attempts to impose sustainable feedstock sourcing and to formalise and control
the charcoal market have had little success in SSA due to the combined effects of
poor law enforcement, prevailing land ownership/tenure rules, poor socioeconomic
conditions and the high reliance of rural households on charcoal earnings (IEA 2014;
Smith et al. 2015; Wanjiru et al. 2016; Taylor et al. 2019). In fact, charcoal
contributes significantly to livelihoods in many areas across SSA (Jones et al.
2016; Zulu and Richardson 2013).
3 The above mechanisms suggest some important
linkages between multiple SDGs in the context of traditional biomass use such as
SDG 1, 8, 9, 12 and 15.
Considering the aforementioned linkages and impacts, transitioning to modern
bioenergy production and sustained use can create multiple trade-offs between SDGs
through a multitude of different pathways and mechanisms (Table 2.3). Often these
pathways relate to multiple SDGs. For example, the transition to modern bioenergy
for cooking can have positive health effects (SDG 3) but also contribute to energy
access and climate change mitigation and adaptation, goals (related to SDG7 and
2 It is worth noting that the rate of increase in charcoal use is normally much higher than the rate of
urbanisation itself (e.g. due to demographic factors such as the smaller size of urban households
compared to rural households) (Hosier et al. 1993). Thus, rapid urbanization and/or
commercialisation can result in significantly higher forest degradation from charcoal demand
(Santos et al. 2017).
3 Charcoal production in some dryland areas can also provide a socio-economic adaptation approach
when agricultural livelihood opportunities are impacted by climate change (Ochieng et al. 2014).
56
F. X. Johnson et al.
linkages between SDGs in the context of traditional biomass fuel use, including
especially SDG1, 2, 3, 5 and 7.
In urban areas of SSA, charcoal remains the fuel of choice although of course it is
sourced from rural areas (Sect. 2.1). Even though charcoal supply is smaller compared to firewood, charcoal production in SSA may be unsustainable or “nonrenewable” and contribute to net GHG emissions, especially in eastern Africa (Bailis
et al. 2015). About 20% of harvested woodfuel in SSA (which often involves cutting
live hardwood trees) is converted to charcoal (IRENA 2015). This has led to
deforestation and land degradation around densely populated peri-urban and urban
areas (Ndegwa et al. 2016; Kiruki et al. 2017; Jagger and Kittner 2017). Inefficiencies across the charcoal supply chains and the tendency to use whole trees for
charcoal production result in much higher wood consumption compared to direct
fuelwood use (World Bank 2009; Smeets et al. 2012; Chidumayo and Gumbo 2013).
Furthermore, fuel combustion in inefficient stoves and charcoal kilns contributes
significantly to outdoor air pollution and GHG emissions (Shindell et al. 2012;
Anenberg et al. 2013; Bailis et al. 2003).
2 The above mechanisms suggest important
linkages between multiple SDGs in the context of traditional biomass use, including
SDG 7, 12, 13 and 15.
However, it is difficult to halt charcoal production due to the lack of alternative
livelihoods across the value/supply chain and/or the affordability of other fuels by
users (World Bank 2009; Zulu 2010; Smith et al. 2015; Taylor et al. 2019). So far,
the attempts to impose sustainable feedstock sourcing and to formalise and control
the charcoal market have had little success in SSA due to the combined effects of
poor law enforcement, prevailing land ownership/tenure rules, poor socioeconomic
conditions and the high reliance of rural households on charcoal earnings (IEA 2014;
Smith et al. 2015; Wanjiru et al. 2016; Taylor et al. 2019). In fact, charcoal
contributes significantly to livelihoods in many areas across SSA (Jones et al.
2016; Zulu and Richardson 2013).
3 The above mechanisms suggest some important
linkages between multiple SDGs in the context of traditional biomass use such as
SDG 1, 8, 9, 12 and 15.
Considering the aforementioned linkages and impacts, transitioning to modern
bioenergy production and sustained use can create multiple trade-offs between SDGs
through a multitude of different pathways and mechanisms (Table 2.3). Often these
pathways relate to multiple SDGs. For example, the transition to modern bioenergy
for cooking can have positive health effects (SDG 3) but also contribute to energy
access and climate change mitigation and adaptation, goals (related to SDG7 and
2 It is worth noting that the rate of increase in charcoal use is normally much higher than the rate of
urbanisation itself (e.g. due to demographic factors such as the smaller size of urban households
compared to rural households) (Hosier et al. 1993). Thus, rapid urbanization and/or
commercialisation can result in significantly higher forest degradation from charcoal demand
(Santos et al. 2017).
3 Charcoal production in some dryland areas can also provide a socio-economic adaptation approach
when agricultural livelihood opportunities are impacted by climate change (Ochieng et al. 2014).
56
F. X. Johnson et al.