there is an improvement in the quality of energy services, although the efficiency or
flexibility might be lower (Barnes and Floor 1996; Foell et al. 2011; Dresen et al.
2014).
Second, the shift from traditional to modern bioenergy can be direct such as, for
example, the shift from fuelwood to gaseous or liquid cooking fuels. However, such
a shift is more likely to occur indirectly, alongside broader industrialisation pathways and economic development processes, as energy production shifts away from
the informal sector and energy use moves outside the household itself (Leach 1992;
Silveira and Johnson 2016). As different bioenergy products become more
standardised or “commoditised”, they also become more flexible in terms of transport and trade (Junginger et al. 2011; Olsson and Johnson 2014). As shown in
Table 2.2, bioenergy applications extend across all carriers (i.e. solid, liquid, gas,
heat, electricity) and all end-use sectors (i.e. transport, residential, commercial,
industry).
Third, bioenergy use transitions in SSA occur at the same time as vulnerability to
climate change increases (Olsson and Johnson 2014) (Chap. 1 Vol. 1). At the same
time, the continued reliance on bioenergy can put further pressure on land-intensive
livelihoods in rural areas, especially those associated with high dependence on
traditional biomass and subsistence farming (Chap. 7 Vol. 1; Chap. 2–3 Vol. 2). In
this sense, the twin challenges of improving energy access and adapting to climate
change can be approached simultaneously if proper support is mobilised for the
necessary investment, infrastructure and management systems (Suckall et al. 2015).
It is projected that the demand for traditional biomass will increase in absolute
terms in SSA due to the increasing population, accelerated urbanisation and the lack
Table 2.2 Bioenergy options by carrier, end-use sector and market orientation
Primarily domestic
options
Export options
Options not yet widely
commercialised
Liquid biofuels (for
transport or other uses)
• Unrefined oils
• Ethanol
• Methanol
• Refined oils
• Ethanol
• Pyrolysis oils
• Biobutanol
• Biogasoline
Solid biofuels (for heat
and power)
• Wood pellets
• Wood chips
• Briquettes
• Wood pellets
• Chips
• Torrefied biomass
Solid biofuels (for
domestic and institutional uses)
• Charcoal
• Agricultural residues
• Fuelwood
• Charcoal
• Wood pellets
• Wood chips
• Biochar
Gaseous biofuels
• Biogas
• Synthesis gas
• Biogas (if cleaned
and if exportable
to gas grid
• Pyrolysis gas
Feedstocks, carriers
and co-products
• Agricultural residues
• Municipal solid waste
• Black liquor
• Waste oils
• Oilseeds or oils
for refining into
biodiesel
• High-quality or
processed wastes
• Lignin (by-product
of lignocellulosic
ethanol)
• Carbon-rich chains
• Bio-hydrogen
Source: adapted from (FAO/UNEP 2011; FAO 2004)
54
F. X. Johnson et al.
flexibility might be lower (Barnes and Floor 1996; Foell et al. 2011; Dresen et al.
2014).
Second, the shift from traditional to modern bioenergy can be direct such as, for
example, the shift from fuelwood to gaseous or liquid cooking fuels. However, such
a shift is more likely to occur indirectly, alongside broader industrialisation pathways and economic development processes, as energy production shifts away from
the informal sector and energy use moves outside the household itself (Leach 1992;
Silveira and Johnson 2016). As different bioenergy products become more
standardised or “commoditised”, they also become more flexible in terms of transport and trade (Junginger et al. 2011; Olsson and Johnson 2014). As shown in
Table 2.2, bioenergy applications extend across all carriers (i.e. solid, liquid, gas,
heat, electricity) and all end-use sectors (i.e. transport, residential, commercial,
industry).
Third, bioenergy use transitions in SSA occur at the same time as vulnerability to
climate change increases (Olsson and Johnson 2014) (Chap. 1 Vol. 1). At the same
time, the continued reliance on bioenergy can put further pressure on land-intensive
livelihoods in rural areas, especially those associated with high dependence on
traditional biomass and subsistence farming (Chap. 7 Vol. 1; Chap. 2–3 Vol. 2). In
this sense, the twin challenges of improving energy access and adapting to climate
change can be approached simultaneously if proper support is mobilised for the
necessary investment, infrastructure and management systems (Suckall et al. 2015).
It is projected that the demand for traditional biomass will increase in absolute
terms in SSA due to the increasing population, accelerated urbanisation and the lack
Table 2.2 Bioenergy options by carrier, end-use sector and market orientation
Primarily domestic
options
Export options
Options not yet widely
commercialised
Liquid biofuels (for
transport or other uses)
• Unrefined oils
• Ethanol
• Methanol
• Refined oils
• Ethanol
• Pyrolysis oils
• Biobutanol
• Biogasoline
Solid biofuels (for heat
and power)
• Wood pellets
• Wood chips
• Briquettes
• Wood pellets
• Chips
• Torrefied biomass
Solid biofuels (for
domestic and institutional uses)
• Charcoal
• Agricultural residues
• Fuelwood
• Charcoal
• Wood pellets
• Wood chips
• Biochar
Gaseous biofuels
• Biogas
• Synthesis gas
• Biogas (if cleaned
and if exportable
to gas grid
• Pyrolysis gas
Feedstocks, carriers
and co-products
• Agricultural residues
• Municipal solid waste
• Black liquor
• Waste oils
• Oilseeds or oils
for refining into
biodiesel
• High-quality or
processed wastes
• Lignin (by-product
of lignocellulosic
ethanol)
• Carbon-rich chains
• Bio-hydrogen
Source: adapted from (FAO/UNEP 2011; FAO 2004)
54
F. X. Johnson et al.