challenge to meeting SDG15. For example, such processes cause the annual loss of
USD 195 billion of natural capital through illegal financial flows, mining, logging,
wildlife trade, unregulated fishing and environmental degradation (AMCEN 2019).
Apart from negatively affecting the achievement of SDG15, these resources could
have contributed to meeting multiple other SDGs. These underlying economic and
demographic processes are particularly multi-faceted as explained throughout this
chapter (see Sects. 1.1, 1.2.8, 1.2.9 and 1.2.11 among others) and, as a result, are
bound to pose substantial challenges in effectively protecting terrestrial ecosystems,
biodiversity and ecosystem services (IPBES 2018).
There is a large array of different policy instruments and practical solutions that
can curb biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, especially outside protected
areas. These can range from community-based conservation and other participatory
land/resource management/planning practices (Duguma et al. 2018; Galvin et al.
2018; Dyer et al. 2014) to the promotion of good production practices (UNDP 2011;
Mijatović et al. 2018), and market-based conservation mechanisms (Brownlie et al.,
2017). Such diverse instruments can increase the potential to link environmental
conservation outside of protected areas, to policies and efforts related to other SDGs,
environmental issues and broader economic, agricultural, poverty and trade policies
(IPBES 2018). However, the proper implementation and effectiveness of these
instruments is often compromised by institutional failures (e.g. corruption, elite
capture), market failures (e.g. environmental externalities) and legal/policy failures
(e.g. distorted subsidies, lack of secure property rights), essentially posing significant
challenges in promoting effective measures to meet SDG15 (IPBES 2018).
Finally, as for many other SDGs, the lack of resources, data, knowledge and
capacity in enforcing existing regulations, designing new innovative instruments and
harnessing synergies between existing instruments can compromise the positive
progress in meeting SDG15 throughout SSA (IPBES 2018; O’Connell et al. 2019;
UNEP-WCMC 2016; Siddig 2019; SDG Centre for Africa 2019; UNECA 2018).
However, on the positive side, there is an increasing commitment of ODA flows for
biodiversity conservation in most sub-regions with the exception of southern Africa
(UNECA 2018).
1.2.16 SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Many SSA countries have experienced protracted armed conflicts following colonial
rule, often lasting for decades. Even though the number of conflict- and terrorismrelated deaths in SSA is much lower compared to Northern Africa, it is still very high
in some countries such as Somalia, South Sudan and the Central African Republic
(SDG Centre for Africa 2019). However, the vast majority of SSA countries (more
than 90% of countries) register fewer than the global average of 1.9 deaths per
100,000 inhabitants (SDG Centre for Africa 2019). Violent crimes have become
more prevalent across most sub-regions, with the continent registering an increasing
share of homicides, from 25% in 2000 to 33% in 2017 (UN 2019). Countries in
34
D. Juju et al.
USD 195 billion of natural capital through illegal financial flows, mining, logging,
wildlife trade, unregulated fishing and environmental degradation (AMCEN 2019).
Apart from negatively affecting the achievement of SDG15, these resources could
have contributed to meeting multiple other SDGs. These underlying economic and
demographic processes are particularly multi-faceted as explained throughout this
chapter (see Sects. 1.1, 1.2.8, 1.2.9 and 1.2.11 among others) and, as a result, are
bound to pose substantial challenges in effectively protecting terrestrial ecosystems,
biodiversity and ecosystem services (IPBES 2018).
There is a large array of different policy instruments and practical solutions that
can curb biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation, especially outside protected
areas. These can range from community-based conservation and other participatory
land/resource management/planning practices (Duguma et al. 2018; Galvin et al.
2018; Dyer et al. 2014) to the promotion of good production practices (UNDP 2011;
Mijatović et al. 2018), and market-based conservation mechanisms (Brownlie et al.,
2017). Such diverse instruments can increase the potential to link environmental
conservation outside of protected areas, to policies and efforts related to other SDGs,
environmental issues and broader economic, agricultural, poverty and trade policies
(IPBES 2018). However, the proper implementation and effectiveness of these
instruments is often compromised by institutional failures (e.g. corruption, elite
capture), market failures (e.g. environmental externalities) and legal/policy failures
(e.g. distorted subsidies, lack of secure property rights), essentially posing significant
challenges in promoting effective measures to meet SDG15 (IPBES 2018).
Finally, as for many other SDGs, the lack of resources, data, knowledge and
capacity in enforcing existing regulations, designing new innovative instruments and
harnessing synergies between existing instruments can compromise the positive
progress in meeting SDG15 throughout SSA (IPBES 2018; O’Connell et al. 2019;
UNEP-WCMC 2016; Siddig 2019; SDG Centre for Africa 2019; UNECA 2018).
However, on the positive side, there is an increasing commitment of ODA flows for
biodiversity conservation in most sub-regions with the exception of southern Africa
(UNECA 2018).
1.2.16 SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Many SSA countries have experienced protracted armed conflicts following colonial
rule, often lasting for decades. Even though the number of conflict- and terrorismrelated deaths in SSA is much lower compared to Northern Africa, it is still very high
in some countries such as Somalia, South Sudan and the Central African Republic
(SDG Centre for Africa 2019). However, the vast majority of SSA countries (more
than 90% of countries) register fewer than the global average of 1.9 deaths per
100,000 inhabitants (SDG Centre for Africa 2019). Violent crimes have become
more prevalent across most sub-regions, with the continent registering an increasing
share of homicides, from 25% in 2000 to 33% in 2017 (UN 2019). Countries in
34
D. Juju et al.