precipitation patterns (IPCC 2014) (Chaps. 2 and 9, Vol. 2). There is consensus
within the scientific community that climate change exacerbates the risk, frequency,
intensity, spatial extent, duration and timing of extreme weather and climate-related
hazards (IPCC 2014). This is consistent across most regions and biomes around the
world, with a rather strong consensus between scientists.
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is expected to face some of the most severe impacts of
climate and environmental change due to a combination of environmental and
socio-economic factors (Serdeczny et al. 2016) (see Chap. Vol. 1). Many of the
countries at a greater risk are concentrated in SSA, where the capacity to prevent and
cope with the adverse impacts of climate change is poor (Chen et al. 2015). Since
2014, for instance, annual and unprecedented droughts have been threatening
biodiversity, ecosystem services and the quality of life of rural and urban households
across southern and eastern SSA (IPBES 2018). Remarkably, the vulnerability of
communities and households to disasters related to climate and ecosystem change is
highly disproportional across SSA sub-regions, as well as within individual countries and localities (Narain et al. 2011; World Bank 2012; IPCC 2014). Furthermore,
due to the generally weak adaptive capacity across much of SSA, entire livelihood
systems, biodiversity and ecosystem services are threatened (Niang et al. 2014) (see
also Chap. 10 Vol. 1; Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2). Similarly, poorer rural communities
experience the highest negative effects from such events, as they depend directly on
agriculture and ecosystems for their livelihoods (IRIN 2017) (Chap. 1 Vol. 1;
Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2).
The effects of climate change are possibly more pronounced in the semi-arid
areas of SSA that span an estimated 5073 km
2 (UNDP/UNSO 1997). In these areas,
the livelihood resilience of most people is continuously weakened due to floods and
droughts, which are contributing to water stress and hindering food production
exacerbating food insecurity (see also Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2).
1 Several scenarios
and modelling studies show that tropical savannas and grasslands will be significantly threatened by climate change in the next decades (Higgins and Scheiter 2012;
Lehmann et al. 2014).
Many studies have been focusing on the ability of vulnerable communities and
households to adapt to and/or recover from the effects of potentially harmful natural
and human-induced disasters in a manner that protects livelihoods, accelerates/
sustains recovery and supports economic and social development (Manyena 2006;
Gaillard 2007; Turnbull et al. 2013; Zhang and Shay 2019). Despite an emerging
consensus on the fundamental tenets of the resilience concept and the proliferation of
relevant studies (especially in the last two decades), key definitions, interpretations
and measurement approaches are still contested (Sect. 6.2.1). Current definitions
suggest that resilience is a rather complex subject, with its different theoretical and
1 Rockström et al. (2009) point out that water scarcity and rainfall variability (coupled with human
pressure on water resources for food production) in the savanna semi-arid regions could lead to
floods, droughts and dry spells, and why there is a need for the adoption of effective water strategies
to increase the resilience of local social-ecological systems.
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Y. A. Boafo et al.
within the scientific community that climate change exacerbates the risk, frequency,
intensity, spatial extent, duration and timing of extreme weather and climate-related
hazards (IPCC 2014). This is consistent across most regions and biomes around the
world, with a rather strong consensus between scientists.
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is expected to face some of the most severe impacts of
climate and environmental change due to a combination of environmental and
socio-economic factors (Serdeczny et al. 2016) (see Chap. Vol. 1). Many of the
countries at a greater risk are concentrated in SSA, where the capacity to prevent and
cope with the adverse impacts of climate change is poor (Chen et al. 2015). Since
2014, for instance, annual and unprecedented droughts have been threatening
biodiversity, ecosystem services and the quality of life of rural and urban households
across southern and eastern SSA (IPBES 2018). Remarkably, the vulnerability of
communities and households to disasters related to climate and ecosystem change is
highly disproportional across SSA sub-regions, as well as within individual countries and localities (Narain et al. 2011; World Bank 2012; IPCC 2014). Furthermore,
due to the generally weak adaptive capacity across much of SSA, entire livelihood
systems, biodiversity and ecosystem services are threatened (Niang et al. 2014) (see
also Chap. 10 Vol. 1; Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2). Similarly, poorer rural communities
experience the highest negative effects from such events, as they depend directly on
agriculture and ecosystems for their livelihoods (IRIN 2017) (Chap. 1 Vol. 1;
Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2).
The effects of climate change are possibly more pronounced in the semi-arid
areas of SSA that span an estimated 5073 km
2 (UNDP/UNSO 1997). In these areas,
the livelihood resilience of most people is continuously weakened due to floods and
droughts, which are contributing to water stress and hindering food production
exacerbating food insecurity (see also Chaps. 2 and 3 Vol. 2).
1 Several scenarios
and modelling studies show that tropical savannas and grasslands will be significantly threatened by climate change in the next decades (Higgins and Scheiter 2012;
Lehmann et al. 2014).
Many studies have been focusing on the ability of vulnerable communities and
households to adapt to and/or recover from the effects of potentially harmful natural
and human-induced disasters in a manner that protects livelihoods, accelerates/
sustains recovery and supports economic and social development (Manyena 2006;
Gaillard 2007; Turnbull et al. 2013; Zhang and Shay 2019). Despite an emerging
consensus on the fundamental tenets of the resilience concept and the proliferation of
relevant studies (especially in the last two decades), key definitions, interpretations
and measurement approaches are still contested (Sect. 6.2.1). Current definitions
suggest that resilience is a rather complex subject, with its different theoretical and
1 Rockström et al. (2009) point out that water scarcity and rainfall variability (coupled with human
pressure on water resources for food production) in the savanna semi-arid regions could lead to
floods, droughts and dry spells, and why there is a need for the adoption of effective water strategies
to increase the resilience of local social-ecological systems.
192
Y. A. Boafo et al.