worker ants host slightly different actinobacterial communities on their cuticles and
each bacterial specie is capable of making multiple different antimicrobials, which
are also thought to be constantly evolving (Barke et al. 2010; Seipke et al. 2011;
Worsley et al. 2018). Although the use of multidrug therapy in humans is controversial, varying our antibiotic usage and ensuring that their application is targeted
(to bacterial or fungal infections only), may help to safeguard novel antibiotics into
the future.
23.4.3 Manipulating Microbiomes
Developing an understanding of the host mechanisms and environmental factors that
influence the assembly of a microbiome could inform strategies to manipulate their
composition. For example, there is great interest in being able to enhance the
presence of beneficial, protective microbial species within the microbiome to
improve or restore host health. An increasing number of studies are demonstrating
that the human infant gut microbiome can be profoundly disrupted by factors such as
antibiotic treatment, birthing method (C-section versus vaginal birth) and formula
feeding (Mueller et al. 2015; Tamburini et al. 2016). This in turn is linked to an
increased risk of developing infections caused by pathogenic strains, such as Clostridium difficile, as well as immune and metabolic diseases later in life (Mueller et al.
2015; Tamburini et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013). Thus, scientists are investigating ways to restore the healthy infant gut microbiota and increase its resilience to
infection. It is known that human breast milk contains a high density of complex
oligosaccharides and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and that each of these is
preferentially consumed by a single species of co-adapted gut bacteria (Tamburini
et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013; Zivkovic et al. 2011). For example, specific
oligosaccharides are known to promote the proliferation of Bifidobacterium species
which play an important role in inhibiting the growth of pathogens and directing
immune system development (Tamburini et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013;
Zivkovic et al. 2011). Many public health organisations now recommend breast
feeding over formula milk whenever possible. Several studies have also looked into
whether formula milk could be modified to include important components of breast
milk; these would act as prebiotics to restore or promote the defensive microbiome
(Borewicz et al. 2019; Mueller et al. 2015; Tamburini et al. 2016).
Similarly, there is a lot of interest in manipulating the root microbiome of key
food crop plant species to suppress disease and improve harvestable yields (Newitt
et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2015; Ryan et al. 2009). This method could act as a potential
alternative to the application of environmentally damaging chemical pesticides and
also provide a mechanism of protection when there are no resistance genes available
to breed into the crop of interest (Newitt et al. 2019). Several potential methods to
manipulate plant root microbiome composition are beginning to be explored. This
includes the application of antibiotic-producing biocontrol agents as probiotic seed
coatings before sewing the crop (O’Callaghan 2016); this ensures that beneficial
506
S. Worsley
each bacterial specie is capable of making multiple different antimicrobials, which
are also thought to be constantly evolving (Barke et al. 2010; Seipke et al. 2011;
Worsley et al. 2018). Although the use of multidrug therapy in humans is controversial, varying our antibiotic usage and ensuring that their application is targeted
(to bacterial or fungal infections only), may help to safeguard novel antibiotics into
the future.
23.4.3 Manipulating Microbiomes
Developing an understanding of the host mechanisms and environmental factors that
influence the assembly of a microbiome could inform strategies to manipulate their
composition. For example, there is great interest in being able to enhance the
presence of beneficial, protective microbial species within the microbiome to
improve or restore host health. An increasing number of studies are demonstrating
that the human infant gut microbiome can be profoundly disrupted by factors such as
antibiotic treatment, birthing method (C-section versus vaginal birth) and formula
feeding (Mueller et al. 2015; Tamburini et al. 2016). This in turn is linked to an
increased risk of developing infections caused by pathogenic strains, such as Clostridium difficile, as well as immune and metabolic diseases later in life (Mueller et al.
2015; Tamburini et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013). Thus, scientists are investigating ways to restore the healthy infant gut microbiota and increase its resilience to
infection. It is known that human breast milk contains a high density of complex
oligosaccharides and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and that each of these is
preferentially consumed by a single species of co-adapted gut bacteria (Tamburini
et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013; Zivkovic et al. 2011). For example, specific
oligosaccharides are known to promote the proliferation of Bifidobacterium species
which play an important role in inhibiting the growth of pathogens and directing
immune system development (Tamburini et al. 2016; Matamoros et al. 2013;
Zivkovic et al. 2011). Many public health organisations now recommend breast
feeding over formula milk whenever possible. Several studies have also looked into
whether formula milk could be modified to include important components of breast
milk; these would act as prebiotics to restore or promote the defensive microbiome
(Borewicz et al. 2019; Mueller et al. 2015; Tamburini et al. 2016).
Similarly, there is a lot of interest in manipulating the root microbiome of key
food crop plant species to suppress disease and improve harvestable yields (Newitt
et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2015; Ryan et al. 2009). This method could act as a potential
alternative to the application of environmentally damaging chemical pesticides and
also provide a mechanism of protection when there are no resistance genes available
to breed into the crop of interest (Newitt et al. 2019). Several potential methods to
manipulate plant root microbiome composition are beginning to be explored. This
includes the application of antibiotic-producing biocontrol agents as probiotic seed
coatings before sewing the crop (O’Callaghan 2016); this ensures that beneficial
506
S. Worsley