been the initial version of his marvelous textbook on soil microbiology (Waksman
1927). I would say that perhaps his textbook was ground breaking. In that book,
Waksman presented his instructions on the occurrence and chemical activities of the
microorganisms that contribute to soil. He included mention that soil is also a habitat
for many microorganisms that cause diseases of plants and animals.
1.1.4 Life Has Levels of Organization
There are formal names given to biological organizations and groupings of organisms, other than just calling them scums and slimes. What are the levels of biological
organization? Some living things contain one cell that performs all needed functions.
Multicellular organisms are made of many parts that are needed for survival. These
parts of multicellular organisms are divided into five levels of organization from the
simplest to the most complex: cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
Above the organism level, there are some defined ecological levels. We consider a
group of organisms belonging to the same species as representing a population of
that species. A community, or biocoenosis, is an interacting population that includes
more than one species. When groups of organisms from all biological domains act in
conjunction with the abiotic (nonliving) physical materials in their environment, we
call that interactive grouping an ecosystem. The adjoining and interconnecting
ecosystems of geographically contiguous areas, perhaps on a continental scale or
oceanic scale, are collectively referred to as being a biome. The biosphere, or
ecosphere, is a level that includes all life on earth plus the abiotic aspects of those
environments where life resides.
1.1.5 Life Is Interactive and Often Interdependent
Life evolves to use what is available, and it is far easier to use what already is
available rather than to continuously reinvent the wheel. But, once life has evolved
to use materials that already are available, there can be a dependency upon the supply
of those materials. Depending upon materials supplied by others can in turn lead to
symbiosis. Unfortunately, losing availability of those materials requires either that
usable substitute materials must be found or else the evolved dependent life may
become extinct.
Symbiosis is the necessary living together of two or more beings as first defined
by Albert Bernhard Frank (Frank 1877). Symbiosis commonly is considered to be an
attribute of progress. And yet, symbiosis can involve taking as well as giving,
enticements and denials, loving and lying, cheating and sometimes eating, targeting
both friend and foe.
Francisco Carrapiço, who very graciously joined us as an author for this book poject,
has summarized the history of symbiosis versus symbiogenesis (Carrapiço 2015).
1 Our Living World Rests upon a Foundation of Microorganisms: The Constant. . .
7
1927). I would say that perhaps his textbook was ground breaking. In that book,
Waksman presented his instructions on the occurrence and chemical activities of the
microorganisms that contribute to soil. He included mention that soil is also a habitat
for many microorganisms that cause diseases of plants and animals.
1.1.4 Life Has Levels of Organization
There are formal names given to biological organizations and groupings of organisms, other than just calling them scums and slimes. What are the levels of biological
organization? Some living things contain one cell that performs all needed functions.
Multicellular organisms are made of many parts that are needed for survival. These
parts of multicellular organisms are divided into five levels of organization from the
simplest to the most complex: cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
Above the organism level, there are some defined ecological levels. We consider a
group of organisms belonging to the same species as representing a population of
that species. A community, or biocoenosis, is an interacting population that includes
more than one species. When groups of organisms from all biological domains act in
conjunction with the abiotic (nonliving) physical materials in their environment, we
call that interactive grouping an ecosystem. The adjoining and interconnecting
ecosystems of geographically contiguous areas, perhaps on a continental scale or
oceanic scale, are collectively referred to as being a biome. The biosphere, or
ecosphere, is a level that includes all life on earth plus the abiotic aspects of those
environments where life resides.
1.1.5 Life Is Interactive and Often Interdependent
Life evolves to use what is available, and it is far easier to use what already is
available rather than to continuously reinvent the wheel. But, once life has evolved
to use materials that already are available, there can be a dependency upon the supply
of those materials. Depending upon materials supplied by others can in turn lead to
symbiosis. Unfortunately, losing availability of those materials requires either that
usable substitute materials must be found or else the evolved dependent life may
become extinct.
Symbiosis is the necessary living together of two or more beings as first defined
by Albert Bernhard Frank (Frank 1877). Symbiosis commonly is considered to be an
attribute of progress. And yet, symbiosis can involve taking as well as giving,
enticements and denials, loving and lying, cheating and sometimes eating, targeting
both friend and foe.
Francisco Carrapiço, who very graciously joined us as an author for this book poject,
has summarized the history of symbiosis versus symbiogenesis (Carrapiço 2015).
1 Our Living World Rests upon a Foundation of Microorganisms: The Constant. . .
7