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3.4 Win-Win Narratives on Bioprospecting
The win-win discourse on bioprospecting contains discursive narratives that
describe examples of bioprospecting in a positive manner. A key example consists
of variations over a positive story of the cooperation between the Costa Rican
research institute INBio and the giant American pharmaceutical company Merck.
In 1991, the two parties made a cooperation agreement where INBio was paid 1.1
million US dollars for collecting and preparing biological specimens for Merck.
According to the agreement, INBio would also receive a percentage of revenues
generated from sales if new medicines resulted from the cooperation. The agreement has been emphasized as a show case of bioprospecting and how this activity
can contribute to conservation, because INBio gave part of its income to the conservation authorities in Costa Rica (Mateo 2000; Reid et al. 1993). At a meeting in
Geneva in 1991, one of us observed how the agreement was presented directly to
the negotiators involved in the concluding work of the Biodiversity Convention.
In 1990, Shaman Pharmaceuticals, an American company, was founded to work
exclusively on bioprospecting. The company worked in local communities in Latin
America, Africa and Southeast Asia, until it in 2002 went bankrupt. Shaman based
all its collections of plant samples on information acquired from traditional healers
and other local actors with expertise on medicinal effects of plants. The samples
were sent to Shaman’s laboratory in California where chemists and pharmacists
investigated effects and side effects of the biochemicals. Shaman and an associated
charity organization, Healing Forest Conservancy, presented several win-win narratives based on their experiences in bioprospecting. While INBio has emphasized
conservation as a key aim for sharing the benefits of bioprospecting, Shaman
emphasized that the receivers of such benefits should be ‘indigenous, tribal or native’
people (Moran 1997: 246). The company has presented win-win narratives of their
bioprospecting in countries such as Ecuador (King 1994), Belize (Chinnock et al.
1997), Nigeria (Carlson et al. 1997) and Tanzania (Richter et al. undated).
One of Shaman’s narratives concerns medicinal effects of the resin of species of
the dragon blood tree (Croton) of South America. For a long time, the company
worked to develop two anti-viral medicines, and described a successful cooperation
in this case with an umbrella organization for indigenous peoples in South America
(King 1994). Shaman developed medicines based on the dragon blood tree that
were promising for treating widespread diseases and consequently could have a
large potential market (Shaman Pharmaceuticals 1997a, b). Commercial production would require a large amount of raw material, and Shaman wanted indigenous people in forests with dragon blood trees to supply the raw material and
thereby contribute to their livelihoods. The company also emphasized their concern for such production to be ecologically sustainable.
3.5 Biopiracy Narratives
Many biopiracy narratives have been produced within the biopiracy discourse. The
individual narratives focus on various stages of bioprospecting, but all provide
concrete examples of how bioprospecting and associated patenting is tantamount
3.5 · Biopiracy Narratives
3
3.4 Win-Win Narratives on Bioprospecting
The win-win discourse on bioprospecting contains discursive narratives that
describe examples of bioprospecting in a positive manner. A key example consists
of variations over a positive story of the cooperation between the Costa Rican
research institute INBio and the giant American pharmaceutical company Merck.
In 1991, the two parties made a cooperation agreement where INBio was paid 1.1
million US dollars for collecting and preparing biological specimens for Merck.
According to the agreement, INBio would also receive a percentage of revenues
generated from sales if new medicines resulted from the cooperation. The agreement has been emphasized as a show case of bioprospecting and how this activity
can contribute to conservation, because INBio gave part of its income to the conservation authorities in Costa Rica (Mateo 2000; Reid et al. 1993). At a meeting in
Geneva in 1991, one of us observed how the agreement was presented directly to
the negotiators involved in the concluding work of the Biodiversity Convention.
In 1990, Shaman Pharmaceuticals, an American company, was founded to work
exclusively on bioprospecting. The company worked in local communities in Latin
America, Africa and Southeast Asia, until it in 2002 went bankrupt. Shaman based
all its collections of plant samples on information acquired from traditional healers
and other local actors with expertise on medicinal effects of plants. The samples
were sent to Shaman’s laboratory in California where chemists and pharmacists
investigated effects and side effects of the biochemicals. Shaman and an associated
charity organization, Healing Forest Conservancy, presented several win-win narratives based on their experiences in bioprospecting. While INBio has emphasized
conservation as a key aim for sharing the benefits of bioprospecting, Shaman
emphasized that the receivers of such benefits should be ‘indigenous, tribal or native’
people (Moran 1997: 246). The company has presented win-win narratives of their
bioprospecting in countries such as Ecuador (King 1994), Belize (Chinnock et al.
1997), Nigeria (Carlson et al. 1997) and Tanzania (Richter et al. undated).
One of Shaman’s narratives concerns medicinal effects of the resin of species of
the dragon blood tree (Croton) of South America. For a long time, the company
worked to develop two anti-viral medicines, and described a successful cooperation
in this case with an umbrella organization for indigenous peoples in South America
(King 1994). Shaman developed medicines based on the dragon blood tree that
were promising for treating widespread diseases and consequently could have a
large potential market (Shaman Pharmaceuticals 1997a, b). Commercial production would require a large amount of raw material, and Shaman wanted indigenous people in forests with dragon blood trees to supply the raw material and
thereby contribute to their livelihoods. The company also emphasized their concern for such production to be ecologically sustainable.
3.5 Biopiracy Narratives
Many biopiracy narratives have been produced within the biopiracy discourse. The
individual narratives focus on various stages of bioprospecting, but all provide
concrete examples of how bioprospecting and associated patenting is tantamount
3.5 · Biopiracy Narratives